
k¥ 




Class _ju1J02- 
Boolc iw ^K 

%rigM°._ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

■ — Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY AND PRINCIPAL OF THE SHORT COURSES, 
NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS). 



PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

By HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. 

POULTRY HUSBANDMAN OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; ASSIST- 
ANT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF 
AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS); FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE 
OF THE BARON DE HIRSCH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL; MEMBER 
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POULTRY INSTRUC- 
TORS AND INVESTIGATORS; LIFE MEMBER 
AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 



L1PPINCOTTS 
FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS. Ph D. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
SERIES 



PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

By H. R. LEWIS, B.S. 

Rutgers College 



PROFITABLE 
HORSE HUSBANDRY 

By C. W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. 

University of Pennsylvania 

In Press 



PRODUCTIVE 
SHEEP HUSBANDRY 
By W. C. COFFEY, M.S. 

University of Illinois 

In Preparation 



PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE HUSBANDRY 
By G. E. DAY, B.S.A. 

Ontario Agricultural College 



Lippincott's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell). 

PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

A COMPLETE TEXT 

DEALING WITH THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 
. INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY 

BY 

HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. 

POULTRY HUSBANDMAN OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; ASSIST- 
ANT PROFESSOR OF POULTRY AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE OF 
AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS); FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE 
OF THE BARON DE HIRSCH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL; MEMBER 
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POULTRY INSTRUC- 
TORS AND INVESTIGATORS; LIFE MEMBER 
AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 

329 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 

" If vain our toil, 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man. 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



SF487 
i.63 



COPYRIGHT, Igi3 
3Y J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Elecirolyped anfl'jfrinted by 
J. B- Lippincolt Company, Philadelphia U. S. A. 



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>CI.A36110 9 



DEDICATION. 

TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF POULTRY 
THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 
MAY IT BE TO THEM A STEPPING STONE 
IN THIS GREAT AND GROWING INDUSTRY. 



PREFACE. 

The exceedingly large and ever-increasing demand for poultry 
and poultry products, at home and for export, has caused the 
poultry business to become so profitable, when conducted upon a 
scientific basis, that no breeder can afford to lack the latest knowl- 
edge of best methods in all its branches. 

A number of poultry books have appeared during the past few 
years in response to an insistent demand, some dealing with special 
branches, others covering the entire subject in a general way. But 
the great need in poultry literature is for a work which covers the 
subject in a thoroughly scientific yet practical manner, treating 
each branch in sufficient detail to give entire clarity, and giving 
to the reader the results of research at the various experiment 
stations and the methods that are most successful in present-day 
practice. 

Such a book has been the aim of the author. In its prepara- 
tion there has been an earnest effort to help build the foundation 
for a systematic, scientific, and greater poultry industry. 

The work contains in an abbreviated form the observations, 
practices, and experience of the author while engaged in various 
poultry enterprises as practical poultryman, as student, and as 
teacher. 

Of all live-stock, the poultry flock is most often misunderstood 
and poorly cared for. In recent years much attention has been 
given to a special study of the needs of poultry, in order to secure 
reliable data on the subject. It is largely due to this awakening 
that the poultry industry of America is bounding ahead in such 
rapid strides. Remember that in the report of the Secretary of 
Agriculture for 1905, the total value of poultry products in the 
United States was estimated at five hundred million dollars. In 
1907 it had risen to over six hundred million dollars, and in 1910 
it was equal to cotton and was next to corn, which is the leading 
agricultural product. This rapid increase in production, accom- 
panied by a more rapidly increasing demand for home consumption 
and export, necessitates a better knowledge of requirements under- 
lying production and marketing. 

With these conditions in mind, the text has been written to aid 



viii PREFACE 

all those interested in every phase of the industry. The book 
offers, to the student and teacher of poultry husbandry, a complete, 
concise, systematic course of lessons, commencing with a brief 
introduction outlining methods of teaching poultry husbandry. 
The main text opens with a discussion of poultry farming, its 
opportunities and requirements, the types and systems, methods 
of starting in the business, and an analysis of foreign poultry con- 
ditions. The breeds of poultry are classified and their uses given; 
methods of management are recommended, including housing, 
feeding, breeding, and all phases of hatching and rearing. 

Every phase of marketing is analyzed and improved methods 
are recommended. Suggestions are given on the subjects of exhib- 
iting, judging, advertising, and the keeping of records. In dis- 
cussing methods of management the principles underlying the 
operations are first given; this is followed with a few of the most 
successful practices. Illustrations are freely but carefully used to 
bring out important features. 

In the hands of the commercial poultryman the book affords a 
large field for study, because it points out the practices which 
prove to be most efficient on large, successful plants, and because 
it outlines methods which are recommended by experiment stations 
in the various States and by the Federal Government. By making 
free use of the index, the poultryman can quickly find information 
pertaining to almost any point about which he might wish to 
know. In case of disease, improper feeding, or environmental con- 
ditions, the information might be of inestimable value. 

To the farm poultryman the text clearly pictures methods 
which would enable the keeping of more birds with no more labor 
and a much increased profit. The methods given, if practised, 
would enable the average farmer to keep from two hundred to 
five hundred birds, asa" side line " to general farm operations, 
and realize a handsome revenue. 

The text is so arranged that it will meet the needs for system- 
atic reading courses, for farmers' clubs, poultry associations, and 
granges. 

The review questions at the end of each chapter are for the 
use of students in preparing for recitations, for the instructor in 
conducting reviews, and for the practical poultryman in grasping 
the fundamental points in the discussion. Reference lists are given 
at the close of many of the chapters. Most of the references are 
to Federal and State publications which can 'be obtained free of 



PREFACE ix 

charge or which can be found in reference libraries. The miscel- 
laneous references in the appendix deal with the entire subject in 
a general way. It is recommended that references be studied so 
far as facilities will permit, since a broader conception of the sub- 
ject will thus be obtained. 

That this book may fill a place in the world of poultry litera- 
ture, may meet the need for a modern text-book, and may help 
solve the problems which are so annoying to many, whether they 
be students, poultrymen, or farmers, is the earnest wish of the 
author. 

Harry R. Lewis. 
New Brunswick, New Jersey, 
October, 1913. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

The author wishes to express his obligation to a number of 
persons who have aided in the preparation of the work. To Mr. 
Morris Roberts, of Maplewood, New Jersey, is due the credit for 
a number of the pen-and-ink drawings reproduced in the text. 
Many photographs have been supplied by the Department of 
Agriculture, experiment stations, and individuals, credits for which 
are given. Mrs. Harry R. Lewis has materially aided in the com- 
pletion of the work. Many practical poultrymen and teachers 
whose names are not mentioned have offered suggestions and 
encouragement. To all those who have so earnestly aided in the 
work the author expresses his appreciation and indebtedness. 

The composition tables given in Chapter XI were compiled 
from analyses from experiment station reports and various com- 
position tables. The composition of many grains was taken from 
" Elementary Treatise on Stock Feeds and Feeding," by J. E. 
Halligan. Valuable material was also obtained from Bulletin 164 
of the California Experiment Station, entitled " Poultry Feeding," 
by M. E. Jaffa. The feeding tables in the appendix are almost 
entirely from this source. 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
CHAPTER 

Introduction— The Teaching of Poultry Husbandry 1 

I. Poultry Farming and What it Means 7 

II. Location and Situation 41 

III. Making a Successful Start 56 

IV. The Breeds of Poultry 63 

V. Selection of Stock 96 

VI. Principles of Poultry-House Construction 104 

VII. Practice of Poultry-House Construction 124 

VIII. Poultry Fixtures 143 

IX. Yards and Yarding 15 ° 

X. Principles of Poultry Feeding 169 

1 84 
XI. Poultry Feeds , 

XII. Practice of Poultry Feeding 204 

XIII. Principles of Poultry Breeding 221 

XIV. Practical Application of Breeding Principles 245 

XV. Management of the Laying Stock 266 

XVI. Management of the Breeding Stock. 281 

XVII. Anatomy and Physiology of the Fowl 292 

XVIII. Formation of the Egg and Chicken 30 ° 

XIX. Natural Incubation and Brooding 312 

XX. Artificial Incubation • 

348 
XXI. Artificial Brooding 

XXII. Care of the Growing Stock 368 

XXIII. Broilers, Roasters, and Capons °' u 

XXIV. Fattening. Killing, and Dressing 403 

492 

XXV. Marketing the Products 

XXVI. Records, Accounts, and Advertising 

XXVII. Exhibiting and Judging 

XXVIII. Parasites, Diseases, and Enemies 

516 

Appendix 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. PAGE 

The Farm Flock . . . : Frontispiece 

1. Agricultural "Gospel" Train 2 

2. A Type of Poultry Educational Exhibit 3 

3. Students Constructing a Poultry House 4 

4. Students Killing and Picking Poultry 5 

5. A Modern Farm Poultry Plant 8 

6. Distribution of Poultry in the United States 10 

7. Noted Centres of Poultry Production 11 

8. A Typical Farm Flock in the Middle West 12 

9. A Large Laying Flock, Petaluma, California 13 

10. A Large Breeding Flock, Petaluma, California 13 

11. Interior of Commercial Hatchery, Petaluma, California 13 

12. A General View in the Petaluma District 14 

13. A Laying House Common in the Vineland District, N. J 15 

14. Each House is a 200-bird Unit (Vineland) ' 16 

15. A House Holding 1000 Birds at Vineland 16 

16. Scenes from the Little Compton District, R. I 17 

17. Roaster Growing by Intensive Methods, South Shore District 18 

IS. Well-grown South Shore Roasters IS 

19. Incubator Cellar, South Shore District 19 

20. Poultry Plant of the New Jersey State College of Agriculture 20 

21. Refrigerator Car for Shipping Dressed Poultry and Eggs 21 

22. Car for Shipping Live Poultry 21 

23. A Farm for Intensive Egg Production 27 

24. A Farm for the Production of Fancy Poultry 27 

25. Poultry on a Yorkshire Farm, England 36 

26. Plant of a Fancy Poultry Keeper in England 36 

27. An English Scene of Intensive Poultry Keeping 37 

28. A Typical Danish Poultry House 38 

29. A Danish Egg-grading and Packing Room 39 

30. Rural Trolley Express. . . . '. '. 43 

31. Systems of Poultry Farming 45 

32. Large Community Poultry House 46 

33. Semi-community Poultry Plant 47 

34. Colony Houses for Poultry on Extensive Range 47 

35. Ideal Location for Poultry Farming 49 

36. Houses and Yards on a Hillside, Giving Good Drainage 51 

37. Gallus Bankiva Pair 63 

38. A Pair of Aseel Fowls 64 

39. Shapes of American Breeds 68 

xv 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

40. Buff Orpington Pair 69 

41. Light Brahma Hen 72 

42. Buff Leghorns 72 

43. A Pair of Mottled Anconas 74 

44. A White Orpington Pair 74 

45. Black Orpington Hen 75 

46. Black-tailed White Japanese Bantams 77 

47. Ideal Egg Shape 78 

48. A Campine Pair 79 

49. Single-comb White Leghorns 81 

50. Single-comb Black Minorca Pair 82 

51. Ideal Shape of the Meat Type ; 83 

52. Buff Cochin Pair 84 

53. Black Langshan Pair 86 

54. Ideal General-purpose Shape 87 

55. Comparison of the Three Utility Types of Poultry 88 

56. The Most Popular Farm Breed of Poultry— B. P. Rocks 90 

57. White Plymouth Rock Pair 90 

58. An Excellent General-purpose Breed — White Wyandottes 91 

59. Silver Wyandottes 92 

60. Rhode Island Reds 92 

61. The Cornish Game 93 

62. A Comparison of Texture of Meat 97 

63. Eggs from Pure Breeds and from Mongrels 98 

64. Antiquated Type of Poultry House 104 

65. Modern Type of Poultry House 105 

66. Floor of Standard Multiple-unit Laying House 107 

67. An Efficient Rear Ventilator for Summer Use 109 

68. Three Types of Laying Houses Ill 

69. Diagram Showing Lines of Sun's Rays 112 

70. Shapes of Houses Compared, Showing Amount of Wall Material 

Required 113 

71. The Possible Growth of the Multiple-unit Plan 113 

72. Six Types of Roofs for Poultry Houses 114 

73. A Well-framed Poultry House 115 

74. Four Plans for Foundation and Floor Construction 116 

75. Four Styles of Doors for Poultry Houses 119 

76. Three Plans for Placing Openings in the Front Wall 120 

77. Types of Poultry Windows 121 

78. Two Plans for Constructing Frames for Muslin Curtains .' 122 

79. Cross Section of Hillside, Showing Manner of Grading 124 

80. Diagram Showing Method of Laying Out Foundation 125 

81. Five Steps in the Construction of a Concrete Foundation 126 

82. Placing Fresh Concrete in Forms for Wall 127 

83. Working Plans of Double-unit Laying House. 129 

84. Frame of Standard Multiple-unit Laying House 130 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

85. Double-unit House Completed 131 

86. Working Plans of Small-unit Laying House 132 

87. Small-unit Laying House Completed 133 

88a, b. Working Plans of Laying House with Two-thirds Span Roof 134-135 

89. Laying House with Two-thirds Span Roof 136 

90. Interior View of Two-thirds Span House 136 

91a. Working Plans of Half-monitor Laying House 137 

916. Half-monitor Type of Laying House in Process of Construction 

and Nearing Completion 138 

92a. Working Plans of Portable Laying House. 140 

92b. Portable Colony Laying House Completed 141 

93. Arrangement of Nests, Perches, and Dropping Boards 144 

94. Roosting Closets to Prevent Drafts at Night 145 

95. Four Ways of Locating Nests 147 

96. Dark Wall Nests, Arranged in Tiers 148 

97. Coops for Broody Hens 148 

'98. Pearl or Maine State Trap Nest .' 149 

99. Improved Connecticut Trap Nest 149 

100. The Cornell Trap Nest 150 

101. Common Types of Feeding Troughs 153 

102. A Home-made Dry-mash Hopper 154 

103. A Practical Drinking Fountain 155 

104. A Hopper for Grit and Shell .156 

105. A Group of Commercial Feeding Appliances 157 

106. A Good Method of Double Yarding and Crop Rotation 159 

107. Three Methods of Arranging Double Yards 161 

108. Forms for Making Concrete Fence Posts 162 

109. Manner of Bracing a Corner Fence Post 163 

110. A Common Type of Fence Construction 165 

111. Ways of Bracing Gate Posts 166 

112. Types of Gate Construction 167 

113. Graphic Representation of the Composition of the Bird's Body .... 170 

114. Cross Section of Wheat Kernel 188 

115. Rack for Sprouting Oats 189 

116. A Tray of Sprouted Oats Ready for Feeding 190 

117. Mangel-wurzel Beets at Harvest Time 199 

118. Poultry Feed House, Centrally Located 205 

119. The Poultry Feed Wagon 207 

120. Morphological Variation, Illustrated with Chicks 236 

121. Substantive Variations, Light and Dark Males 237 

122. Meristic Variation, Four-legged Chick 238 

123. Functional Variation, Eggs of Different Sizes 239 

124. Rumpless Birds, a Mutation 240 

125. Inbreeding Chart, Showing Distribution of Inherited Characters. . . 247 

126. Line Breeding Chart 249 

127. "Lady Lay More," a Wonderful Hen 253 



xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 

128. Strong and Weak Males 255 

129. Wedge or Angular Shape Common in Good Layers 257 

130. Belle of Jersey and Lady Cornell, Two Phenomenal Hens 258 

131. A Light Brahma Pair 260 

132. An Example of Sexual Dimorphism 261 

133. A Prize-winning Pair of Columbian Wyandottes 262 

134. Relation Between Yield, Temperature and Selling Price of Eggs. . 266 

135. White Leghorns 267 

136. Ideal Individuals of the Single-comb White Leghorn Breed 268 

137. A Large-unit Laying Flock 271 

138. A Simple and Efficient Disinfecting Outfit 273 

139. The Egg-collecting Pail 287 

140. Desirable and Undesirable Types of Hatching Eggs 288 

141. Skeleton of the Fowl 293 

142. The Digestive Tract 296 

143. Circulatory System of the Fowl 297 

144. Male Reproductive System 298 

145. Female Reproductive Organs 301 

146. Parts of the Completed Egg 303 

147. Abnormal Eggs Compared with Normal One 306 

148. Chick Embryo Thirty-six Hours Old 308 

149. Chick Embryo Three Days Old 308 

150. Hatching Time 311 

151. Two Common Types of Sitting Coops 316 

152. Manner of Toe Punching for Baby Chicks 321 

153. A Good, Yet Simple, Chick Leg Band 322 

154. An Average-sized Flock by Natural Incubation 324 

155. Working Plans for Incubator Cellar 328 

156. Views Showing Construction of Hollow-tile Incubator Cellar 329 

157. A Common Type of Hot-air Incubator 331 

158. Modern Mammoth Incubators 332 

159. A Complete Self-regulating Device for Incubators 333 

160. Interior View of Incubator Cellar 340 

161. A Useful, Home-made Egg Tester 343 

162. Eggs Seven Days in Incubator as Seen When Tested 344 

163. Three Different Types of Long Brooder Houses 349 

164. Mammoth Hot-water Brooders 351 

165. Portable Indoor Hovers 352 

166. Small Portable Outdoor Brooders 352 

167. Colony Brooder Houses 353 

168. Portable Gasoline Brooder Houses 355 

169. Chicks Showing Pronounced Symptoms of White Diarrhoea 364 

170. Growing Poultry on Free Range , 369 

171. Rearing Chickens under Intensive Conditions 370 

172. A Desirable Rotation of Crops for Poultry Runs 372 

173. Four Types of Summer Developing Houses 373 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

174. A Flock of Fowls Ready for Market 377 

175. Market Types of Broilers 379 

176. Curves Showing Variation in Supply and Prices for Broilers 380 

177. Rhode Island Red Broilers Ready for Market 382 ' 

178. Market Types of Roasting Chickens 387 

179. Curve Showing Variations in Market Prices for Roasters 388 

180. A Flock of Capons Five Months Old 390 

181. Caponizing Instruments 394 

182. Proper Place to Make Incision in Caponizing 395 

183. Steps in the Operation of Caponizing 396-397 

184. Comparison of Weights with Capon and Cockerel 401 

185. A Portable Battery of Feeding Coops 405 

186. Common Type of Funnel Used in Cramming 408 

187. Cramming Machine 408 

188. Proper Method of Sticking and Dry Picking 411 

189. An Excellent Killing Knife 412 

190. Dry Picking Squab Broilers 415 

191. Scalding Poultry 416 

192. Roaster Properly Dressed for Retail Trade 419 

193. Chart Showing Course of Products from Producer to Consumer. . . . 425 

194. The Relation of Temperature to Selling Price of Eggs 430 

195. Interior of Mercantile Exchange, New York City 431 

196. Egg Grading Table in Use : 434 

197. A Popular Manner of Packing Eggs for Shipment 436 

198. Effect of Incubation Temperature on Fertile and Infertile Eggs. . . . 438 

199. Stages in the Development of the Embryo 439 

200. A Commercial Egg Candler at Work 441 

201. Boxes for Shipping Baby Chicks 444 

202. Undesirable Types of Market Broilers 445 

203. Soft Roasters Ready for Market 445 

204. Methods of Packing Fancy Grades of Dressed Poultry 446 

205. Broilers Box-packed and Iced for Shipment 447 

206. Three Methods of Keeping Records 463 

207. Students Washing Live Birds for Exhibition 480 

208. The Technic of Washing 481 

209. Baltimore Poultry Exhibit 484 

210. A Body Louse 507 

211. A Red Mite 508 

212. A Scaly-leg Mite 508 

213. The Work of the Scaly-leg Mite 509 

214. The Gapeworm 511 

215. The Common Roundworm 511 

216. The Tapeworm 512 

217. Parts of Fowl Shown and Named 515 



PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY HUSBANDRY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY. 

The demand for the teaching of poultry husbandry in the 
public schools and colleges is increasing constantly. Nearly all 
the State colleges and universities are giving considerable time 
to its study. All secondary schools of agriculture rank poultry 
instruction with such subjects as dairying and fruit growing. 
Recently elementary schools have commenced giving the subject 
of poultry farming a place in their agricultural teaching. 

During the last few years the poultry industry has witnessed 
an immense growth in popularity. This has been due to several 
factors : The activity of the poultry press ; the many poultry sys- 
tems; attempts to meet the high cost of living; and a " back to 
the land " movement on the part of city people. 

The needs for poultry instruction may be classed as follows: 
(1) To develop the best system and systematize the various prac- 
tices; (2) to train men to qualify as managers of large poultry 
operations; (3) to train all classes of poultrymen to get the most 
from their birds. 

Diversity of Instruction. — Poultry keeping involves a clear 
understanding of many sciences and practices. An outlined course 
of study must so present these topics that the amateur and prac- 
tical poultry keeper can grasp the various phenomena as they 
affect the successful handling of poultry, without an extensive 
study of the principles underlying the entire science. For ex- 
ample, the principles and practices of feeding must show enough 
of the chemistry of feed and of digestion to give the student the 
reasons underlying the practices in feeding. The same might be 
said of breeding, housing, and sanitation. 

The Value of Practical Application. — It is very desirable that 
all students have some previous experience in the handling of a 

1 



2 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

flock of birds. Such experience will put the student in a position 
to see the importance of the various lines of instruction. If such 
previous practice is lacking, much of the value of the work will 
unconsciously be lost, owing to the inability to grasp the practical 
application. 

Types of Instruction. — Poultry instruction of different kinds 
may be classified as elementary, secondary, collegiate, extension 
teaching, correspondence courses, and educational associations. 

Elementary instruction should start in the grammar grades of 
the public schools, and deal with the external appearance and 
functional activities of birds of all kinds and of poultry in partic- 
ular. Many fundamental points may be considered. The stu- 
dent's interest in this line of agriculture may be aroused. 




Fig. 1. — Agricultural "Gospel" train (Cornell). 

The secondary instruction is that given in high schools and 
schools of agriculture. The work at this time should deal with 
methods, care, and management; and study may be made of differ- 
ent types and breeds. 

Collegiate instruction is not only a review of general principles 
and practices, but it should deal with the deeper scientific prin- 
ciples which underlie all operations. It should consider the eco- 
nomic principles, methods of management, markets, and the rela- 
tion of supply and demand. Much time during the latter part of the 
course may be given to original investigation and research work. 

Extension teaching may be termed the " follow-up " method 
of instruction, which should be organized as a part of the work of 
colleges and universities. It should be available not only to stu- 



TYPES OF INSTRUCTION 3 

dents but to all persons interested in the keeping of poultry, 
whether beginners or experienced farmers. Such instruction gives 
to the poultryman at his home the latest knowledge pertaining 
to his work. It shows in a concise manner the results of recent 
investigation and its practical application. 

Some of the methods of extension work are as follows: (1) 
Extension lectures before agricultural and special poultry gather- 
ings. (2) Railroad-train trips through centres of poultry produc- 
tion (Fig 1). Teaching carried on by lectures and educational 
exhibits. (3) Educational exhibits at fairs, poultry shows, and 
grange picnics (Fig. 2). (4) The publication at regular intervals 



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Msa i'5»r~.Z jis! 


3^* ' >• .- 

vm^ — =— — ■ 


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4 ' ■'.. 



Fig. 2. — A type of poultry educational exhibit. 



of home-reading-course circulars which tell in a concise way the 
practical application of the latest findings from poultry experi- 
ments. (5) Demonstrations showing improved and scientific 
methods, such as killing, picking, caponizing, grading, and packing. 
Correspondence courses allow of individual study of a prepared 
set of lessons and practices; the benefit obtained depends upon 
the practicability and completeness of the outlined lessons, and 
the ability of the student to grasp the meaning and to pursue the 
course until finished. The failure to study all lessons to the end 
of the course often results in little good to those who attempt to 
gain their knowledge in this way. 



4 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

Educational Associations. — The possibilities of poultry organ- 
ization for purposes of education are great. The association may 
have a broad constitution so that it may, if desired, conduct co- 
operative buying and selling. The educational feature is usually 
attained through regular meetings, at which systematic lectures 
or lessons are outlined and discussed. Much may be gained from 
general discussion of methods and practices, by members. 

Laboratory Practice.- In any course of instruction, whether it 
be elementary or collegiate, the lectures and lessons should be 
supplemented by as much practical work as equipment and time 




Fig. 3. — Students constructing a poultry house. 

will permit. The practice work impresses upon the student the 
value of one method over another. The efficiency of the instruc- 
tion is thus greatly increased. The following list includes a few 
of the more practical operations which should accompany a col- 
legiate course of instruction: 

The entire care of a flock of laying birds for a given period, 
including a complete record, showing cost and income. 

The actual work of designing, drawing, and constructing poul- 
try houses (Fig. 3). 

Incubation and brooder practice. 

Methods of fattening, killing, and marketing poultry (Fig. 4). 

The grading and marketing of eggs. 

The judging of poultry and the management of a student 
poultry show. 



COLLATERAL READING 5 

There are many more important laboratory operations of a 
scientific nature. 

Collateral Reading. — All lectures and discussions should be 
accompanied by a required amount of outside reading. Only 
standard books and periodicals should be recommended, and from 
the results of such reading written or oral reviews should be given. 
Poultry literature from the Department of Agriculture and the 




Fig. 4. — Students killing and picking poultry (Cornell). 



various experiment stations should be freely used in reference 
work. Any one may obtain poultry publications from the experi- 
ment station of his own State by having his name placed upon the 
mailing list. 

In an exhaustive study of various poultry text-books there will 
appear an apparent lack of unity on many important points. 
This in some cases is due to the fact that the present knowledge 
does not allow complete and positive decision on some points; in 
other cases the difference is not real, but incomplete statements 
lead to misunderstanding. A careful analysis, however, will show 



6 THE TEACHING OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

a general unity of belief among the standard investigators in 
regard to nearly all fundamental principles and practices. 

Home Experiments. — In all types of instruction home practice 
and experimental work should be encouraged. Each student 
should be urged to take an interest in the management of the home 
flock, where possible, starting with the elementary work. This 
will enthuse the student and create an interest in the work. As 
the student progresses he may keep a record of the egg yield, cost 
of feeds, and production of the home flock, and from these data 
the profits may be calculated. 



CHAPTER I. 

POULTRY FARMING AND WHAT IT MEANS. 

Poultry keeping as an industry is so important a subject 
that at the commencement it is necessary to outline just what is 
meant by the term " poultry farming." As the term is gener- 
ally used we think of it as meaning an exclusive business, as fruit 
growing or grain farming; with this idea of the subject before us 
the outlook is not always the brightest. 

Does it pay? — The general belief is that poultry farming does 
not pay, and this is only too true in many cases when the term is 
•applied in the sense outlined above. There is no branch of animal 
husbandry in which so many experimental starts have been made 
and which have resulted in total ruin as in poultry farming. This 
is probably due to at least two causes: (1) Beginning with too 
large an investment of capital and stock which requires an immense 
amount of energy and money to keep running; or (2) in many 
cases the business has been ruined at the outset by the inexperi- 
ence of the promoters who were made to believe, by misleading 
statements and fascinating statistics, that poultry keeping is the 
quickest road to a large fortune. While there are many large, 
exclusive poultry farms which are paying good dividends, and 
this number is constantly on the increase, yet the true meaning 
of the term poultry farming does not lie in this phase of the work. 

How, then, is the greatest chance of success to be attained? 
It is by considering poultry keeping as a branch of the farmer's 
operations and making it one of the many departments of his 
work. Such a combination brings him continuous profit and pleas- 
ure. The large, exclusive poultry plants should be left to those 
who have had years of experience in the care and management of 
birds as well as the sale and marketing of the products. By start- 
ing the business as a branch of general farming, experience will 
come as the work goes on, and a careful and systematic increase 
in the size and production of the plant can be arranged so that the 
poultry keeper can measure his capacity for large things as the 
increase accumulates. It is with this thought in view that the sub- 
ject of poultry farming is approached, the object being to show 
farmers and amateur poultry keepers that in poultry keeping there 

7 



8 



POULTRY FARMING 



is money to be made, money which in many cases could not be 
realized at all if it were not for this branch of farming (Fig. 5). 

The Poultry Industry in the United States. — The United States 
census bureau takes an enumeration of the poultry interests when 
taking the regular census every ten years. A brief survey of the 
last poultry census is interesting. The practice is to consider only 




Fig. 5. — A modern farm poultry plant, where poultry raising is a profitable " side line " 

to general farming. 

fowls three months of age or over and only those kept on farms, no 
enumeration being provided by law for cities, towns, or villages. 
The elimination of the poultry in these other centres greatly 
reduces the reported number kept and produced in the United 
States. Investigations made in New Jersey show that incorporated 
cities in the State have one adult bird within the city limits for 
every two and one-half persons enumerated in the census. It is 
supposed that this will run much higher in towns and villages. 

The following table shows the number and value of birds re- 
ported by the thirteenth census, compared with the number in the 
twelfth census. 

Table I. — United States Poultry Census. 



1910— Number 

Value 

Average value.. . . 

Farms reporting. . 

Per cent of all 

farms 

1900— Number 



All fowls. 



295,8S0,190 

$154,663,220 

$0.52 

5,585,032 

87.8 

250,624,038 



Chickens. 



280,345,133 

$140,205,607 

$0.50 

5,578,525 

87.7 

233,566,021 



Turkeys. 



3,6S8,708 

$6,605,818 

$1.79 

871,123 

13.7 

6,594,695 



Ducks. 



2,906,525 

$1,567,164 

$0.54 

503,704 



4,785,850 



Geese. 



4,431,980 

$3,194,507 

$0.72 

662,324 

10.4 

5,676,788 



The table shows that 94.7 per cent of all birds reported were 
domestic fowls which are classified as " chickens," in distinction 



THE POULTRY INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 



9 



from the other kinds of poultry. There was an increase in chickens 
of 17 per cent. The average value per fowl in 1910 was fifty-two 
cents, while in 1900 it was only thirty-four cents, the average value 
having increased over 52.9 per cent. 

Table II shows the number and value of chickens, reported 
by geographic divisions. • 



Table II. — Geographic 


Distribution of Foivls. 






Chickens. 


Division or section. 


Number. 


Value. 




1910. 


1900. 


In- 

crease. 


1910. 


United States 

New England 


280,345,133 

6,841,918 
24,449,500 
69,471,413 
85,192,651 
25,627,003 
24.495,054 
29,176,294 
5,467,343 
9,623,957 


233,566,021 

6,440,678 

21,511,436 

58,104,189 

65,364,879 

22,293,912 

22,965,751 

27,333,880 

3,116,639 

6,434,657 

151,421,182 

72,593,543 

9,551,296 

131,315,966 
102,250,055 


Per cent. 

20.0 

6.2 

13.7 

19.6 

30.3 

15.0 

6.7 

6.7 

75.4 

49.6 


$140,205,607 
4,975 551 


Middle Atlantic 

East North Central .... 
West North Central. . . . 
South Atlantic 


16.346,161 
36,609,410 
41,207,295 
11,894 700 


East South Central .... 
West South Central. . . . 

Mountain 

Pacific 


10,272,636 

10,393,418 

3,005,103 

5,501,333 


The North.. 


185.955,482 
79,298,351 
15,091,300 

150,884,888 
129,460,245 


22.8 

9.2 

58.0 


99,138,417 
32,560 754 


The South 


The West 


8,506,436 






East of the Mississippi . 
West of the Mississippi . 


14.9 
26.6 


80,098,458 
60,107,149 



It will be seen that in 1910 the West North Central division 
reported 30 per cent of the total number of fowls in the country. 
The East North Central division ranked next with 24.3 per cent, 
and the West South Central next with 10.6 per cent. 

Figure 6 shows graphically the distribution of fowls by States 
and divisions. 

The number of fanns reporting fowls raised in 1909 was 5,655,- 
754, or 88.9 per cent of all farms in the United States; and the 
number of such fowls was 488,468,354, or an average of 86.4 fowls 
per farm. The total value of such fowls was $202,506,272, as 
against $136,830,152 in 1899. The value of the poultry produced 
during the decade shows an increase of over 48 per cent. 



10 



POULTRY FARMING 



In 1909 there were produced in the United States 1,591,311,371 
dozens of eggs, valued at $306,688,960. The production in 1899 
was 1,293,662,433 dozens of eggs, and the value $144,240,541. 
While the production of eggs during the ten years increased but 
twenty-three per cent, the value more than doubled, the exact 
amount of gain being $162,488,419, or 112.6 per cent. These 
numbers show an increase in the value of poultry and poultry 




Fig. 6. — Distribution of poultry in the United States. Each black dot represents one 
million birds on farms. 

products. This has been brought about by an increased demand 
for good products and by an improvement in quality of products. 
The ten States leading in their total value of poultry are: 



Iowa $12,270,000 

Missouri 11,871.000 

Illinois 11,697,000 

Ohio 9,533,000 

New York 7.879,000 



Indiana $7,762,000 

Pennsylvania 7,674,000 

Kansas 7,377,000 

Michigan 5,611,000 

Texas 4,807,000 



In these ten States the total value of the poultry is $86,481,000, 
or 55.9 per cent of the total value of poultry in the continental 
portion of the United States. 

Noted Centres of Production.— While the production of eggs 
in the United States is widespread, only the central States of 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, 
Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, and Kentucky produce more than 
are consumed in their immediate vicinity. The great numbers of 



NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 



11 



eggs shipped to the eastern markets are classified as " westerns " 
and come from this section of the country. This section consti- 
tutes the " backbone of the egg industry/' and a brief account of 
the conditions is here given (Fig. 7) . 

In the Central States production is not continuous throughout 
the year, as climatic conditions affect the laying. In Kentucky 
and Tennessee the season of natural production is from December 




Fig. 7. — Noted centres of poultry production. In California the Petaluma district; 
in Massachusetts the "South Shore" Roaster district; in Rhode Island the Little Compton 
district; in New Jersey the Hunterdon and the Vineland districts. Darkly shaded States 
are the leading poultry States, lighter shaded ones come next. 



to April. During March and April the supply from Ohio and 
Missouri appears on the market; this is supplemented by eggs 
from Texas and Kansas. Later in the spring the central northern 
States, Minnesota and Michigan, supply the markets with eggs. 
The supplies of both the southern and northern sections of this 
egg belt fail to meet the demand of the consuming public. The 
population in this section is limited, and large quantities of eggs 
are shipped to the centres of population to supplement production 
in those sections. Owing to the cheap price of grain and land, the 
eggs from central sections compete very profitably with those pro- 
duced near large markets, even with lower prices and poorer 
quality. 

The eggs produced during the early spring are usually of fine 
quality. But they are produced on farms where advantages of 



12 POULTRY FARMING 

grading are not appreciated, and are handled so carelessly that 
the quality is often very bad when they reach the point of consump- 
tion. Conditions are worse during late spring and early summer, 
when the weather is warm and extra care is necessary to cause 
the eggs to reach the market in good condition. 

The eggs produced in this section are sold to local merchants, 
" case count," and often hauled many miles over rough roads and 
exposed to hot sunlight before being sold. They are then often 
held many days, and are finally shipped by local freight to some 




Fig. 8. — A typical farm flock in the Middle West. (Photo by U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

central shipping point where they are candled and graded. The 
loss during the warm months is very great. The price drops all 
along the line, because the quality is poor. 

Improved methods in marketing can best be attained through 
cooperation. A general practice on the part of merchants to buy 
all eggs " loss off " will do much to increase the quality. This 
will bring greater returns to the poultry raisers in this great 
territory (Fig. 8). 

The Petalama district of California is well known by the gen- 
eral public and poultry raisers as one of the most intensive egg- 
producing centres of the country (Fig. 9). The industry is con- 
fined to a limited area near Petaluma, California, and is carried 
on by very intensive artificial methods. The chief product is 
white-shelled eggs of high quality for the large markets on the 
western coast. The farms are small, ranging from five to fifteen 



NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 



13 




Fig. 9. — A laige laying flock, Petaluma, Cal., with characteristic portable laying houses. 




Fig. 10. — A large breeding flock at a commercial hatchery. Petaluma, Cal. 




Fig. 11. — Interior of a commercial hatchery, Petaluma, Cal. 



14 



POULTRY FARMING 




NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION. 



15 



acres. The birds are kept in large flocks, having the entire range 
of the farm; and the houses are often located in groups. Each 
poultry farmer simply cares for his mature stock, as there are 
often as many as two thousand birds on a five-acre farm. All 
hatching and much of the early brooding is done by specialists 
who own and operate large commercial hatcheries (Figs. 10 and 
11). Most of such establishments have their own breeding stock. 
The egg producers keep no males with their flocks, but buy enough 
chicks from the hatchery to supply their needs each year. The 
breeding birds on such hatching plants are given free range; and 
care in mating and breeding is practised to maintain a high degree 




Fig. 13. — A laying house common in the Vineland district, N. J. 

of vitality. The methods at Petaluma are different from those 
practised elsewhere in America, and poultrymen will watch with 
much interest the intensive methods being followed there (Figs. 
9, 10, 11, and 12). 

The Vineland district in New Jersey is another specialized 
section, which resembles, in many respects, the Petaluma district. 
It centres around the city of Vineland (Figs. 13 and 14). The 
white Leghorns are kept, with the object of supplying the New 
York City market with white-shelled eggs of highest quality. 
The farms in this section are small, ranging from one to ten acres. 
Each farm has from five hundred to two thousand layers (Fig. 15) ; 
but there are some exceptionally large farms in the same com- 
munity. Most of the farmers hatch and rear their own birds, 
artificial methods being the most common. The birds are kept, 



16 



POULTRY FARMING 



two hundred to five hundred together, in long, shed-roof laying 
houses. The soil is very sandy and the winters mild, thus offer- 
ing ideal conditions for such large flocks. The district comprises 
about ten square miles. It is estimated that over one hundred 
thousand adult Leghorn fowls are here kept under these inten- 
sive conditions. 




Fig. 14. — Each house is a 200-bird unit (Vineland). 

Hunterdon County. — There is another section in the same 
State which comprises the whole of one county, — namely, that of 
Hunterdon, in the north-central part of New Jersey. It is pri- 
marily a section for general and dairy farming. But upon each 
farm there are usually kept from two hundred to one thousand 
laying hens, white Leghorns predominating. The object is white 




holding one thousand birds at Vineland. 
more general use. 



Large units are coming into 



eggs for the New York City markets. This county alone winters 
over three hundred thousand laying hens. The methods practised 
in this district are noticeably extensive, the farms being large and 
the birds being given unlimited range. This is one of the oldest 
egg-producing sections of note in America, and the extensive 
methods practised for years are still proving the most profitable 
under the existing conditions. 



NOTED CENTRES OF PRODUCTION 



17 



The Little Compton district in Rhode Island produces brown 
eggs for the New England markets. Here the colony system is 
exclusively used (Fig. 16). The birds are kept in small flocks, in 
isolated houses scattered over a large area and no fences are used. 
The feeding and watering are clone from wagons at regular inter- 





Fig. 16. — Scenes from the Little Compton district, R. I. Note the extensive colony 
system and the cheap houses. (Photos by P. W. Almy.) 



vals. Owing to the poor character of the soil, general farm crops 
are not profitably grown. In this district the cost of production 
of eggs is small, and the financial returns are good. This is due 
to the reduced labor and the small investment in houses. Natural 
methods in hatching and rearing are almost entirely used. 

Market Poultry. — There are two sections interesting for their 
2 



18 



POULTRY FARMING 



production of market poultry, the soft roaster district, commonly 
known as the South Shore district of eastern Massachusetts, and 
the capon district of New Jersey. 




Fig. 



17. — Roaster growing by intensive methods, South Shore district. 
E. O. Damon, owner.) 



(Photo by 



The South Shore district is noted for the high quality of soft 
roasting chickens which are marketed. The work is usually sec- 
ondary to other lines of agricultural endeavor; but there are many 




Fig. 18. — Well-grown South Shore roasters. (Photo by E. O. Damon, owner.) 



specialized plants, producing from two thousand to six thousand 
roasters in a season (Figs. 17, 18, and 19). The smaller producers 
raise from one hundred to five hundred. The profit from this 
work is very satisfactory, ranging from eighty cents to one dollar 





MODERN DEVELOPMENTS 19 

per bird. This is due to the short period necessary to hold each 
individual before selling. 

The capon district, previously mentioned, is made up of thou- 
sands of general farms in the western part of central New Jersey. 
Each farmer raises yearly from one hundred to five hundred capons 
for the Philadelphia and New York markets. The birds are given 
free range throughout the entire period of their growth, and are 
allowed to roost in sheds or other outbuildings. The cost for 
feed is low, as grain farming is practised quite commonly and the 
birds have the run of the fields 
after harvest. The profit per 
bird under the existing condi- 
tions varies from one to two 
dollars. The practice of ca- 
ponizing is gaining rapidly in 
this section, owing to the suc- 
cess of those already engaged 
in this work. 

*ig. 19. — Incubatorcellarm the South Shore 
Modern Developments. district, Mass., showing economical construe- 

Recent years have witnessed t^tliiTZ^V*™^ ^° 
great changes in the poultry 

industry. The changes have been toward greater concentration 
and specialization. There are now many exclusive egg farms 
scattered over the more thickly populated sections. Many of 
them have from two thousand to fifteen thousand layers. This 
specialization has placed the poultry business upon a scientific 
basis. This development of special egg farms has brought about 
great improvements in methods of marketing. There is a closer 
relation between producer and consumer. This is largely accom- 
plished by 'guaranteeing a strictly fresh and clean product, for a 
definite price above regular wholesale quotations. This naturally 
leads to more care in marketing the products and an endeavor to 
meet market requirements as they are found in the various sections. 
The industry has taken on a very popular aspect, and many 
people who are engaged in occupations other than agriculture 
have gone into poultry raising in a small way. This popularity 
has called for and has been met by rapid development in the 
facilities for poultry education at the various State colleges, and 
poultry departments have been established at many experiment, 
stations (see Appendix). The work of experiment stations 
tends to make poultry raising an exact science. Many colleges 



20 



POULTRY FARMING 



offer short courses in poultry husbandry of from six to twelve 
weeks during the winter months, the time being devoted largely 
to lectures, demonstrations, and practical work (Fig. 20). These 
are of much value to the amateur who desires to become familiar 
with the details and requirements of the business, as well as to 
the practical poultryman who desires to become familiar with the 
most modern ideas pertaining to his occupation. 

Poultry Organizations. — Among the greatest factors which 
are working for the improvement of the industry are the numer- 
ous organizations being formed in all sections. The majority 
were formerly organizations of fanciers, but the .element of 
utility has more recently been included. Associations working 




Fig. 20. 



-A plant used for instruction and experimental work, New Jersey College of 
Agriculture. 



along both fancy and utility lines should do a great good. 
Organization for educational purposes alone is gaining ground 
every day. New Jersey, for example, has an association in 
each county and a State organization composed of delegates 
from each county association. Its main purposes are education 
and cooperation. 

Changes in Management. — Great changes have been made in 
the general management of the flocks themselves. The most 
prominent of these is the general substitution of dry-mash feeding 
for wet mash. Another change is the housing of birds in open or 
curtain-front, well-ventilated houses, in contrast to the old types 
of closed, warm houses. 

Publications. — The value of systematic advertising has be- 
come more fully recognized, as will be readily seen by an exami- 
nation of the poultry press. This calls attention to another 
great development, — namely, that of poultry magazines and 



SHIPPING 



21 



papers. There are numerous periodicals devoted entirely to 
poultry topics. Aside from these, practically all the agricultural 
papers devote some space to the subject. Columns or depart- 
ments are set aside for poultry matters in many daily and 
weekly newspapers. Some of the leading daily papers employ 
special poultry editors. 

The fattening industry has not progressed in the same ratio as 
other branches. This is due largely to the fact that there is not 
enough demand for the high quality of meat which could thus be 
produced. When market requirements call for such artificial 
methods in producing better fowls, for table use, that branch will 
show a rapid improvement. That time is not far distant. 




Fig. .21. — -Refrigerator car used for shipping 
dressed poultry and eggs. An important factor 
in widening the market for the Western poul- 
try keeper. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 




Fig. 22. — Cars for shipping live poultry. (U 
Department of Agriculture.) 



Duck Raising. — The growing of broiler and roaster ducks has 
seen an almost unprecedented rise during recent years. Formerly 
very few were produced and it was very hard to market at a 
profit the few which were grown. With the advent of the meat- 
fed broiler, conditions changed. It did not then take long to edu- 
cate the consumer to the desirability of having broiler ducks for 
table purposes. In certain sections of the East, especially, this 
industry has reached immense proportions. On Long Island there 
are many plants which annually produce over fifty thousand broiler 
ducks. It is undoubtedly one of the most remunerative branches 
of the entire industry. 

Shipping. — The improved facilities for transporting poultry 
and eggs long distances by rail at a reasonable cost constitute a 
step in advance. Shipments are made under almost perfect storage 
and sanitary conditions by the extensive use of refrigerator cars 
by fast freight and express (Figs. 21 and 22). 



22 POULTRY FARMING 

The Future. — In view of the great developments which have 
taken place, combined with the constantly increasing demand for 
poultry of all classes, there is a very bright future for the industry 
as a whole. 

Poultry Keeping for Business and Pleasure. — Profit is the 
main object of poultry farming, yet the pleasure which accompanies 
it is often an important consideration. The complexity of the 
branches makes it difficult to separate these two objects. All 
poultry keeping falls under one of the following heads: Poultry 
keeping (1) as a business; (2) as an employment; (3) as an invest- 
ment; (4) for family use; (5) for fancy points. 

Poultry Keeping as a Business. — This phase of poultry keep- 
ing is carried on by one who invests both his time and money in 
the enterprise. It may be either an exclusive poultry business or 
a side line to general farm operations. Many thousands of small 
producers consider poultry of secondary importance. The number 
of poultry keepers making a living from the production of eggs 
and poultry is rapidly on the increase. These have usually com- 
menced the business in a small way, and have started to specialize 
as their experience grew. 

To make the business successful, a man must have become 
expert in the care and management of fowls, must have a good 
business training, good judgment, and must be accurate, prompt, 
and methodical. These qualities are only gained by training and 
experience. The beginner has the example of many earlier poultry 
keepers to guide him, and thus the road to success is much quicker 
and surer ; books and papers are within the reach of all ; and prac- 
tical instruction is easy to obtain after the rudimentary principles 
are learned. These must be secured before work, even for instruc- 
tion purposes, can be obtained on any of the large plants. 

A man should never start out in poultry keeping as an extensive 
business until he has learned it thoroughly by experience. 

Poultry keeping as an employment is taken to include all ex- 
amples where one gives his entire time to poultry work, receiving 
compensation for time so given. The demand for poultry labor, 
both skilled and unskilled, is constantly on the increase. The 
opportunities are very similar to those offered by other branches 
of farm work. The wages received by skilled labor vary with the 
experience and ability of the man, size of the plant, and the amount 
of responsibility assumed. The size of the plant is the smallest 
factor. The poultry laborer has fairly long hours of work and 
moderate rate of pay, but his work is sure to be steady. For one 



POULTRY KEEPING FOR BUSINESS AND PLEASURE 23 

who likes it, there is always a great pleasure to be derived from it 
as well as a great variety in the day's routine. 

Unskilled poultry labor receives about the same rate of wage 
as the average farm laborer of the same locality; but there is a 
much greater chance for study and rapid advancement for those 
who are anxious and ambitious to reach better things. 

The field of poultry labor lies open to young men who are 
desirous of taking up some form of farm work and who have not 
the time nor money to devote to an extended education along 
other lines of agriculture. A few months spent in one of the modern 
poultry short courses will equip an energetic and ambitious young 
man so that he can get a start. He can learn the fine points of the 
business by experience on poultry plants and, at the same time, 
get an income from it. 

Poultry Keeping as an Investment. — This phase of poultry keep- 
ing is the placing of one's money in the poultry business without 
devoting any time or labor to its management. The investment 
of surplus funds where the investor does not manage the business 
is generally a bad policy. Success largely depends (1) on the 
selection of a manager, (2) on the owner's knowledge of the busi- 
ness and its requirements, and (3) on the amount of capital which 
can be used when necessity demands. 

Poultry raising, being a business of details, requires very care- 
ful and conscientious management, more so than any other branch 
of farm work. The manager must be well trained in the practical 
side of poultry raising as well as the theoretical. The more years of 
actual experience he has had the better. If the one who is invest- 
ing his funds in poultry work has a fair knowledge of the business 
in a practical way, good results are much surer. Location and situa- 
tion with reference to markets are important items to be considered 
before making a heavy investment. If one has a large amount of 
capital, he is much surer of making a success; he is then able to 
meet any emergency of any kind and still continue the business. 
Set-backs and poor seasons will happen, and one should never in- 
vest his entire means. Keep a reserve to help in extreme cases. 

The first investment should not be too heavy. It is better 
to start in a limited way until one can determine what the returns 
will actually be. The investment can be increased yearly as the 
business increases. A slow normal increase is much better and 
surer than an extremely rapid and abnormal one. Poultry keeping 
as an investment must be on a large scale, and it often takes years 



24 POULTRY FARMING 

to build up a large plant before it is on a paying basis. For this 
reason inexperienced investors often blame their managers for 
things which they cannot avoid. Due care should be exercised in 
the selection of the manager. Then it is best to outline the charac- 
ter of the work to be followed and leave the details to the manager. 

Before investing in any way, one should get all information 
possible from all sources. A good poultry text-book should be 
supplemented by poultry journals. Take trips to large, up-to-date 
poultry plants ; and make a study of general and local market con- 
ditions. There are many opportunities open to the investor which 
offer surer returns than poultry keeping. This is shown clearly 
when the conditions, causing the failure of so many of our large 
poultry plants, are studied closely. 

Poultry Keeping for Family Use. — The object of keeping small 
flocks of poultry on most of our farms and suburban lots is two- 
fold: (1) to supply eggs and fresh poultry for the home table; 
(2) to market, at a profit, what is not consumed at home. 

On very many general farms, the fowls are considered as a 
side issue and of no great importance. Consequently, in the 
majority of cases, neglect is found and unsatisfactory results must 
be expected. There is usually no one to take special care of the 
birds; there is no judgment used in breeding — scrubs and mongrels 
are often kept; any house which will barely keep the birds dry is 
considered good enough ; and scraps from the table and steady ra- 
tions of corn are considered sufficient. Not until some member of 
the family, whether child or parent, takes hold of the matter and 
changes the improper conditions, does the flock show its true worth. 
It must be recognized that the farm flock, no matter what its size, 
has a direct financial value. The greater care and attention the 
fowls receive the greater will be the returns. By breeding and 
selection, the mongrels should be eliminated and pure-bred stock 
introduced. This will increase the value of the birds for market 
and breeding purposes. The birds must be given well-built and 
sanitary houses and proper feed to secure the products which are 
expected of them. Often a start made in this small way develops 
until the owner finds himself a breeder of no small rank. 

The main purpose of the family flock is usually profit, and the 
pleasure side of it is often under-estimated. The owner should 
consider the fowls scattered about the home as an asset in beauti- 
fying the same, and making it more livable. They give the poorer 
man in the country and city who loves domestic animals a luxury 



POULTRY KEEPING FOR BUSINESS AND PLEASURE 25 

at small cost, for which his wealthy neighbor is willing to pay 
liberally. The family flock is usually a success so far as profit is 
concerned, as there is very little outlay in feed and time. The 
refuse from the table constitutes the bulk of the feed. So the eggs 
are produced at a smaller cost per dozen than would be possible 
if the birds were kept in large flocks, all of the feed purchased, and 
extra help needed to care for them. The beginner often reasons 
that if a few birds pay a large profit, then one hundred times as 
many birds will increase the profit one hundred fold. That such 
is not the case, he will find upon trial, to his own grief. 

It is by the small flocks that the great mass of our market eggs 
and poultry are produced. Anything which tends to increase 
their productiveness and raise them from their inconspicuous place 
•in the farmer's mind will do much for the industry. 

Poultry Keeping for Fancy Points. — The breeding of fancy 
poultry means the breeding of high-class, pure-bred birds which 
approach perfection as near as possible. Each fancier must 
place before him a standard of excellence and strive to reach it. 
The exhibition of the best birds at poultry shows and the winning 
of prizes bring an income which pays well to the one who succeeds. 
Many fanciers breed poultry just for the joy and recreation which 
they get from it, yet the majority figure on a good financial profit 
as well. 

Breeding fancy specimens which approach perfection is an art; 
it requires much careful thought and a training and study in the 
laws of breeding and selection. Usually a breeder selects one par- 
ticular breed and devotes his entire attention to that. Sometimes 
it is the improvement of an old and well-established breed which 
is undertaken. At other times an entirely new breed is developed. 

The poultry fanciers of to-day rarely depend upon the plumage 
pattern of their birds alone to bring them in the greatest return, 
but combine utility qualities with fancy points. Wherever the 
breeding of fowls for fancy points has been successfully carried on, 
there has always been a general improvement of the common 
stock. The fancier must never forget the utility qualities of his 
birds and sacrifice them for the finer fancy points. The result 
would be a general weakening rather than an upbuilding of the 
stock. The tendency of overestimating the value of some minor 
fancy points, to the sacrifice of utility, is rapidly disappearing. 

Many of our most noted breeders of to-day started with a 
small beginning and by breeding for quality rather than quantity 



26 POULTRY FARMING 

have achieved marked success. The breeders of pure-bred poultry 
have united in forming National and State organizations. Every 
breed has its favorites who have formed special breed associations 
and clubs for the advancement of that particular breed. One of 
the largest and most extensive poultry organizations in the world 
is the American Poultry Association. Its members represent the 
leaders in all branches of poultry throughout America. 

When once having started to breed pure-bred birds, due vigil- 
ance and care in management and in breeding must be maintained. 
Birds left to shift for themselves will tend to revert to the former 
type and usually become less beautiful and less useful. 

The field of the breeder of fancy and pure-bred poultry is 
limitless. 

Separate Poultry Industries. — Poultry keeping as an industry 
may be grouped under two main divisions, — namely, exclusive 
poultry keeping, and poult^ keeping as a side line to some other 
branch of work. The former is properly called specialized farming, 
as all endeavors of the farmer are centred on the care and manage- 
ment of poultry. In the majority of cases poultry keeping is 
carried on as a side line. The extent of that one branch of the 
farm work may vary from a very small place in the time and atten- 
tion of the owner to that of the largest branch of the work. Most 
poultry products are from the general farms of the country. 

Exclusive poultry keeping may be subdivided again into special 
industries, as (1) egg farming and (2) meat farming. These 
special industries may be, and often are, combined; but one is 
usually given the greater prominence. Egg production is often 
the leading one with the production of meat an adjunct to it. 
Large, exclusive egg farms are usually located in the thickly settled 
sections of the country, near large cities, and a special price is 
received for the guaranteed marketed product (Fig. 23). Some 
egg farms make a specialty of eggs only twenty-four hours old, 
the date of laying being stamped on the shell; others sell sterile 
eggs, for which an increased price is paid, if properly marketed. 

Poultry meat farms may be grouped under the heads : broiler, 
roaster, or capon farms. These may be run exclusively or in com- 
bination, or either one may be run in connection with egg farming. 
The latter is undoubtedly the best practice. Where the production 
of meat is the leading part of the business, it requires much more 
careful management, owing to the fact that the returns are not 
continuous the entire year. There are certain seasons during which 



SEPARATE POULTRY INDUSTRIES 



27 



large revenues are received for the various classes of market poul- 
try; at other seasons of the year it would not pay to ship them. 
The broiler season extends from September to January; a good 
roaster can be sold at any time of the year, but often at a re- 
duced price per pound; capons bring the highest prices from 




Fig. 23. — A farm for intensive egg production. Three thousand birds housed on five acres. 

November to March. A broiler during the height of the season 
often brings as high as fifty or sixty cents per pound. Out of the 
season twenty cents is a good price, which may be less than the 
cost of production. 

A new phase of the poultry business is the community hatchery 
(Fig. 11). A poultryman who understands the business and is 




Fig. 24. — A farm for the production of fancy poultry. Note the small units, systemat- 
ically arranged, making special matings possible. (Courtesy of Harmony Park.) 

suitably located takes eggs from smaller poultrymen, hatches them, 
and delivers the chicks at hatching time, or in some cases broods 
them to the age of three or more weeks. 

One of the greatest specialties of the business is that of the 
poultry breeder who improves his birds by careful matings, ex- 
hibits at shows, and sells eggs, chicks, and adult birds entirely for 
breeding purposes (Fig. 24). Success in this branch depends on 
the name and standing which the breeder has. 



28 POULTRY FARMING 

There are not only the various specialties outlined here, but 
many other branches, as the keeping of ducks, geese, turkeys, and 
wild game. The broiler-duck business, for instance, is one of the 
largest and most profitable branches of poultry keeping. 

The advantages of poultry keeping are many. The amount 
of land and capital required is not great. There are a great variety 
of products. These are easy to market. The money invested 
brings quick returns. The business is suited to persons of either 
sex. Land is made more fertile. Poultry utilize waste products. 

Land and Capital Required. — It is safe to say that in no other 
branch of animal industry is there so little need of an extended 
outlay in land and capital to make a successful start as in poultry 
keeping. The investment in land is least for those birds which 
are not of a roving nature, as ducks and heavy fowls. With turkeys, 
and some other classes which by nature are wild, more land is 
required. They do not thrive so well in close confinement. Five 
acres will amply accommodate one thousand laying hens and pro- 
vide room for the rearing of the young stock to replace the old 
ones. Experiments show that less land is required than was for- 
merly supposed. When many birds are kept on a small area the cul- 
tivation and sanitation must be more thorough. If scarcitj^ of land 
is not a difficulty to be met, then the most economical method is to 
allow free range. If the feed is to be grown at home, much more 
land is required, — about an acre for every one hundred birds. 
Growing chicks require much more range than adult birds. An 
abundance of park room or large runs should be allowed the young 
pullets and cockerels. Fattening fowls require very little room; 
it is desirable to keep them closely confined during the finishing 
period, as a much greater gain in weight is secured bj r so doing. 

The first question usually asked by a person starting out in 
any business is, " How much will it cost? " Unlike most other 
ventures, the poultry business may be started in a small way with 
very little capital. When starting in egg production for market 
purposes, the first cost for stock is very small; but if starting into 
the breeding of fancy or show birds, this item is much greater. 
A modest beginning is best. This can later be extended and more 
and newer equipment can be purchased as the business grows. The 
small flock on the average farm will thrive with little scientific 
care. As the numbers are increased there is a greater chance for 
disease and a greater need of careful and systematic attention to 
detail of management, which can come only from experience. 



ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY KEEPING 29 

Great Variety of Products. — The poultry business is made up 
of so many different branches that the beginner is enabled to 
select the one which will best fit his own conditions. He must first 
study market requirements and land conditions. The poultry- 
man having only a small plat can go into the breeding of pure-bred 
stock and the production of market eggs. The rearing of chicks 
to be marketed later as roasters or capons requires a much larger 
area and different conditions. On the average farm which is run 
exclusively for egg production, there are a number of by-products 
which bring in a large revenue. Next in order after egg production 
is the raising and sale of market poultry, both the surplus males 
and the old stock. Aside from this is the poultry manure, which 
if properly gathered and stored can be sold as fertilizer to truck 
farmers and growers of small fruits. There is also a revenue from 
feathers if they are dry-picked and well cured. 

Products Easy to Market. — With modern means of transporta- 
tion, it is possible for the poultryman to put upon a special market, 
many miles away, eggs which are not over twenty-four hours old, 
and for which an extra price is easily received. It is also possible 
to ship poultry products much farther, and yet have them reach 
market in much better condition than many other farm products, 
as market milk, perishable vegetables, and tender fruits. It should 
be the aim of every poultryman to produce the best which is pos- 
sible and then to market. the product in the most attractive and 
sanitary way. By so doing he may get a quick and sure market 
for all his shipments. As soon as customers learn that a worthy 
article is regularly produced, a great demand is immediately de- 
veloped for that particular product from the same source. A 
permanent market is easily secured in this way. 

With all poultry products a great value is represented in small 
bulk. They are much easier to handle, both in preparing for 
market and during shipment, than the bulky agricultural products. 
Express charges are relatively small, considering the value carried. 

Poultry products, especially eggs, owing to their small bulk and 
high food value, can be easily stored, and if properly handled can 
be kept for from six months to one year in cold storage and still be 
useful as human food. This practice of holding eggs from season 
to season in storage is used for speculative purposes, and eggs are 
sometimes kept much longer than desirable from the food stand- 
point. It is very easy to hold them from spring, when large num- 
bers are laid, until the next winter, when they may bring good 



30 POULTRY FARMING 

prices on the wholesale markets. The extended storage of eggs 
over periods of two or more years for speculative purposes is dis- 
couraged by law. There will always be a demand for fresh eggs, 
because " An egg is an egg,"— that is, a fresh egg is known to 
contain certain food materials that cannot be adulterated. 

With poultry products, more than with any other kind of farm 
products, one can determine months in advance the approximate 
price to be realized. The production of eggs is affected by tem- 
perature, and the price varies accordingly. During the spring 
months a heavy production is certain, and the price is always 
lowest then. During the winter production is limited, and the 
price received per dozen is high. Knowing this, the egg farmer 
should try, by all known methods of care and management, to get 
a maximum egg yield during the winter months, when the price 
is high and a first-class market for fresh eggs is certain. 

Quick Returns for Money Invested. — The investor with small 
capital must get returns quickly if he is to make a success of his 
investment. Poultry keeping offers inducements to this kind of 
investor, as there is no branch of animal husbandry which offers 
such quick returns. In any branch of the business — whether eggs, 
broilers, roasters, capons, or fancy stock — the products are ready for 
market in a very short time. Considering the longest possible course 
which one could pursue, — namely, the saving of eggs for hatching 
to raise pullets to be kept for egg production, — the products will 
be ready for market in from five to nine months, depending on the 
breed kept. This one fact of quick returns explains why many 
small investors are always starting into the business. 

Suited to Persons of Either Sex. — Poultry keeping requires no 
complicated machinery or heavy equipment. For this reason it 
is well suited to women as well as men. It is also suited to persons 
who are unable to perform hard manual labor and who are willing 
to put time and thought into the work at hand. 

More than half of the poultry of the country is on farms where 
farmers' wives and daughters do most in taking care of the flocks. 
Some of our largest poultry plants to-day are successfully managed 
by women. As a rule, a plant large enough to make a living for 
a family is beyond a woman's strength. In many cases some male 
member of the family can do the heavy work about the plant 
and assist a woman in keeping a flock of five hundred to eight 
hundred birds. The family income may thus be given a substantial 
increase. 



PROFITS FROM POULTRY 31 

Many women have been successful as fanciers and as poultry 
breeders. As a rule, women succeed much better with the brooding 
and care of little chicks, as they are willing to give them careful 
attention during the critical period. To the extent of paying 
attention to details, women make the best poultry keepers, and 
are usually very successful in making small flocks pay. 

Invalids are attracted to poultry keeping in a small way, as it is 
an occupation with much outdoor work. The work is not heavy, 
yet the poultry keeper must be out in all kinds of weather. If the 
sickness is such that this is impossible, the work should not be 
attempted. An invalid engaged in poultry keeping may expect to 
make some part of his living from it. If he increases in physical 
strength, he may increase the plant accordingly. One may safely 
enter the business feeling that he is not physically unfitted for the 
work required, provided he likes it and has the perseverance to 
push ahead. 

Increase Fertility of the Soil. — Aside from the commercial value 
of the poultry manure there is a' great increase in the fertility of 
the land over which the birds run. On a general farm it is prob- 
ably more economical to use all the poultry manure than to attempt 
to sell it. The fertilizing constituents of poultry droppings in the 
fresh state are about as follows: Nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
each 16 pounds and potash 8 pounds in a thousand pounds of 
droppings. Poultry manure is the richest of all the farm manures. 
Compared with commercial fertilizers the three ingredients men- 
tioned make the fresh droppings worth about $7.50 per ton. The 
manure should be carefully collected and used as a concentrated 
fertilizer for farm crops. 

Utilize Waste Products. — Poultry help to save many waste 
seeds and grains on the general farms. They consume many of 
the by-products which otherwise would be an entire loss. This is 
true of inferior fruits and vegetables, and refuse from the table. 
Many insects and weed seeds are consumed. A market value can 
be realized on these when selling poultry products. 

Disadvantages of Poultry Keeping. — The business may at times 
demand more hard work and sacrifice of time than is agreeable to 
the parties concerned. Even with modern methods of sanitation 
there will be occasional outbreaks of contagious disease which will 
cause a large loss of life and greatly diminish profits. 

Profits from Poultry. — The first question asked of any business 
is, " Does it pay?" It can safely be said that poultry keeping pays 



32 POULTRY FARMING 

a surer income, year after year, on the money invested than any 
other business with which the farmer is connected. The time has 
passed when it was the unanimous opinion that poultry does not 
pay. There are too many men actively engaged in it and making a 
comfortable living, as well as too great a number with yearly incomes 
well up into the thousands, for there to be any doubt in the matter. 
It has been proved over and over again that failure cannot be laid 
to the business, but to the man at the head of the business. 

There is no clanger of the business being overdone for many 
years to come, because the demand is greatly ahead of the supply 
and is constantly on the increase. The United States is compelled 
to import millions of dozens of eggs, besides other poultry products, 
each year to keep up with the demand. There have been times 
when the prices would fluctuate out of season, due to speculation 
in cold-storage products, but with better laws governing the storage 
of products this becomes less possible. There need never be any 
fear of large combines being formed to " freeze out " the small 
producer, because the industry is composed of thousands of small 
units, and the middleman or dealers must have their products. 

It is possible to make enormous profits from the poultry busi- 
ness, some of our noted breeders making $30,000 or over in one 
year. On the other hand, there are men who, to all outward 
appearances equally as well fitted for the work, have lost that 
much on poultry in a very short time. 

Great mistakes are made by the uninitiated in figuring profits 
on paper. The enthusiastic amateur will usually work it out as 
follows: One hen will lay twelve dozen eggs a year, which at 
twenty-five cents a dozen will bring in three dollars. It costs one 
dollar to feed her, which will leave a profit of two dollars per hen 
per year. If five hundred hens are kept, they will return a profit 
of $1,000, and if one thousand hens, $2,000; and so on until he 
knows he is to be a millionaire. This is not meant to show that 
this rate of profit cannot be realized. In fact many of our experi- 
enced poultrymen are doing better, but it is only after years of 
experience. Therefore, the best advice to the amateur would be 
to start in a small way and find out by actual experience just what 
can be made out of the business. In this way experience may be 
gained without having to pay dearly for it, as would be the case 
in a heavy first investment. 

Profit depends largely on cost and methods of feeding. The 
cost of poultry feed has risen considerably during recent years. 



PROFITS FROM POULTRY 33 

Poultry keepers have learned more fully the feed requirements for 
winter egg production. It is found in most cases to be impossible 
to feed the laying hen for less than $1.50 per year. Formerly 
this could be done for $1.00 to $1.20. Heavy producing flocks 
often run up to $2.00 or over. There is much need of experi- 
ence in profitable feeding. The profit from feeding comes from 
the feed which is consumed over and above the amount which is 
required for the maintenance of the body. The following may be 
considered about the average to be expected on a commercial 
plant which is managed by one with years of successful experience. 

Production of the Average Hen on a W ell-martaged Plant. 

Eggs laid per year 120 

Value of eggs at an average of 2]/t, cents $3.00 

• Cost of feed 1.50 

Cost of labor per year 30 

Profit over cost of feed 1 .50 

Net profit 1.20 

In explanation of the above it may be said that 120 eggs was 
found to be the average of sixteen commercial plants in the State 
of New Jersey during 1911. The average farm flock is not up to 
this, yet, with a little more care and a slightly increased outlay 
in feed and improved buildings, the average production of the 
farm flock could be greatly increased, and the profit per bird 
doubled. The average production of all farm flocks during the 
same time was estimated to be 92 eggs per hen per year. Two 
and one half cents apiece was below the average wholesale price 
for New Jersey eggs the same year. Numerous experiments and 
observations carried on by the writer show the approximate cost 
of labor per bird to be thirty cents. This cost was when a double 
system of yarding was used and green feed was grown directly 
in the runs. 

It will be interesting to compare the above figures with the 
following results which were obtained during the " Money-in- 
Poultry " contest held under the management of the American 
Agriculturist, which closed April 1, 1901, with over 500 contestants: 

Production of the Average Hen. 

Eggs laid per year 82 

Value of eggs at 234 cents $1 .85 

Cost of feed 94 

Cost of labor 34 

Profit over cost of feed 91 

Net profit 57 

3 



34 POULTRY FARMING 

From a comparison of the two tables it will readily be seen 
that the quality of the average hen is increasing, especially as 
regards number of eggs. This is due undoubtedly to better feed- 
ing and more careful and systematic breeding. 

When it is necessary to estimate the yearly profit from a hen, 
a cost of $1.50 for feed and a return of $1.00 over cost of feed are 
pretty safe figures to rely on. If there is any error it will be on 
the safe side. It must be understood that it will take a well- 
managed plant to equal this. At the same time it should not be 
forgotten that results far superior to the above are very common 
on modern plants when much thought and energy are thrown into 
the work. A number of different plants have been closely studied 
by the author, in various parts of the country, which have turned 
out yearly profits of from 18 to 27 per cent on the investment. 
The largest percentage of profit was on moderately small plants 
of from 200 to 400 birds. The 18 per cent profit was on a plant with 
a laying capacity of over 2,000. This illustrates a very common 
fact : Usually as the plant becomes larger and more birds are kept, 
the owner or manager is less able to look after the necessary de- 
tails; as these details are left to others, there is too apt to be a 
corresponding loss. This is not figured when making calculations 
of profits on paper. 

Here a word of warning will not be out of place: Beware of 
the poultry advertiser, or " poultry system," which claims im- 
mense profits per bird per year. These are constantly seen in 
poultry papers, with special advertisements claiming from $5.00 
to $8.00 profit. It is well for the prospective investor to weigh 
the statements carefully and if possible obtain the advice of an 
expert before investing heavily in such " systems." The adver- 
tiser may be doing all that he claims and be acting in good 
faith, yet many of the systems would be an utter failure in in- 
experienced hands. In this connection it should be remembered 
that profits which are derived from the various branches of the 
business vary greatly. It is possible for the breeder of high-class 
exhibition birds to make a large income from a few birds; this is 
only after years of breeding and the winning of many high prizes 
at poultry shows. 

Risks in the Business. — The poultry business, as with all 
other established enterprises, is subject to certain risks which no 
amount of forethought can entirely overcome. 

In the first place, prices will at times fluctuate, and profits 



BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 35 

must vary according to the character and amount of fluctuation. 
But, as was previously stated, this fluctuation is at all times less, 
and can be more readily foreseen, than in any other business. 

In the second place, there are causes entirely beyond control 
which may cause failure or delay success, — such as ravages of 
disease, fire, or close competition in a local market.- All these 
influences must be taken into consideration by the investor, and 
the remotest chance of the occurrence of any one of them avoided 
if possible. The poultry business, while unique in many respects, 
is not exempt from the influences affecting other lines of normal 
business. 

The vital question confronting the American poultryman 
to-day is not, How can I get better prices for poultry products? 
but, How can I produce a higher quality at a lower cost? This 
same question was the important one years ago, and its solu- 
tion will always be of vital moment. The factors which can 
be made to partially solve the problem at the present time 
are: (1) Better birds; (2) more careful mating and breeding; 
(3) scientific study of laws governing nutrition ; (4) more liberal 
feeding during heavy producing periods; (5) more economical 
and sanitary housing of the laying stock; and (6) more attention 
to the handling and marketing of poultry products. With thought 
and attention to these points the yearly profit per bird would 
show a great increase. 

Brief Review of Foreign Poultry Keeping. — European countries 
as a whole have received a great awakening along poultry lines dur- 
ing recent years, there being a great increase in the number of 
fowls kept, also a great improvement in the breeds maintained 
and in the methods adopted. 

In England the poultry industry is greatly handicapped by 
the preservation of foxes for the purpose of the hunt. There is 
a special tax which goes to defray the injury done to poultry from 
this source, yet in many cases justice is not done. In some in- 
stances false claims are entered which tend to make unpleasant 
conditions common. 

In spite of this handicap the industry has increased annually 
until the yearly production has reached about ten million dollars. 
The one great peculiarity of the English system is the use of small 
portable houses, sometimes on wheels, which can be easily moved 
from place to place, thus giving the birds new ground at all times. 
The majority of English flocks of poultry are kept on small 



36 



POULTRY FARMING 



farms and made to pay good dividends, considering the time and 
money spent for their care (Figs. 25, 26, and 27). 

England is the home of the Orpington fowl, large numbers of 




Fig. 25. — Poultry on a Yorkshire farm. Several varieties are commonly kept on one 
farm. (Photo by Edward Brown.) 

which have been sent to the United States and to several European 
countries by English breeders. Conditions could be easily reversed 
so far as America is concerned. By studying European de- 
mands American breeders could find a market for well-bred 
birds of their most popular breeds. 




Fig. 26. — Plant of a fancy poultry keeper in England. (Photo by Edward Brown.) 

Scotland and Wales are not noted as poultry countries. In the 
former very few birds are kept, ducks and geese predominating, 
and in Wales there are considerable numbers kept on ranges, but 
they are of very poor quality. 

Ireland has received within the last few years a great amount 



BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 



37 



of help and instruction through government aid. Her poultry 
industry is rapidly coming to the front, especially the production 
and immediate marketing of eggs. In methods of fattening and 
finishing birds for markets she has yet much to learn. Ireland 
is a country of small farms, especially suited for this work. 

In France conditions are entirely different. The industry is 
almost universal and has been so for hundreds of years. The 
Ministry of Agriculture lends its powerful influence, and each year 
large shows are held under its supervision. These include all 
classes of poultry as well as eggs and dressed poultry. France 





Fig. 27. 



-An English scene of intensive poultry keeping, with small, elevated, unit houses. 
(Photo by Edward Brown.) . 



not only supplies her own needs but exports large amounts to 
England. It is estimated that the value of poultry and eggs pro- 
duced yearly in France is over $76,000,000, which is nearly double 
the amount produced in the British Isles, and above one-fourth 
the value of the poultry products in the United States for the 
year 1900. Poultry keeping is made a part of all farm operations. 
.It" is especially used in combination with vineyards, where it helps 
to keep insects in check. Fowls are always allowed free range, 
except during the season when the fruit is ripening, and the best 
birds are produced on the same areas where the best grapes are 
produced. The French fowls are known the world over for qual- 
ity of flesh and size of egg. 



38 POULTRY FARMING 

In Belgium poultry keeping is carried on to a relatively im- 
portant extent. The intensive methods characteristic of Belgian 
farmers are in vogue. Large numbers of young birds are fattened 
for export trade, and recently the production of eggs for export 
has taken a rapid stride forward. The egg industry has been 
increased by importing from Italy thousands upon thousands of 
young pullets, mostly Leghorns, at from three to five months of 
age. These are kept entirely for the purpose of securing a lot of 
eggs in a short time for export trade. 

The German Empire is not a heavy producer of eggs nor poultry, 
but imports large quantities from Russia and Italy. 

Denmark has shown the same unequaled success in her poultry 
work which has been characteristic of all her agricultural endeavors. 




Fig. 2S. — A typical Danish poultry house. A roosting room is at each end with a glass- 
front scratching shed between. Brick is commonly used. 

During the ten years from 1890 to 1900 the number of birds more 
than doubled. At the beginning of that period egg production 
was practically nonexistent. The Danes are noted for coopera- 
tion, and their poultry industry has been greatly benefited by the 
organization of poultry societies, which help the farmers to secure 
better markets. As a consequence they have introduced what is 
undoubtedly the most perfect system of grading and crating, as 
well as a system of marketing in the shortest possible time. Up 
to the present time market poultry has not received a prominent 
place in their industry; but they have proven themselves capable 
of such wonderful development and organization that it is impos- 
sible to foretell what they will accomplish in the future (Figs. 
28 and 29). 

Italy does not hold the place in the world's poultry keeping 



BRIEF REVIEW OF FOREIGN POULTRY KEEPING 



39 



which should be expected of a country where two of the greatest 
egg breeds of to-day originated. The Leghorns and Anconas are 
from the Italian peninsula. The northern part of the country is 
especially suited to the- work, as the agricultural districts are 
divided into small farms. The soil and climatic conditions are 
all that could be desired. There are movements toward coopera- 
tion which should yield excellent results in the future. 

Austria- Hungary has made rapid strides, due largely to organ- 
ization and cooperation in shipping and marketing. The lighter 




Fig. 29. — A Danish egg-grading and packing room. Eggs are packed in bulk, in nests of 

excelsior. 

birds are predominant. It is stated by the Hungarian Poultry 
Association that, of all branches of agriculture, poultry keeping is 
best suited to the soil and climate of the country. The statements 
are also made that Hungary exports as much value in poultry 
products as in grain, and that poultry pays ten times as much as 
any other branch of its agriculture. There is a great future ahead 
in Hungary for poultry keeping. 

Russia is a great exporting country, owing to its large area, but 
is backward in its methods and results. The fowls, as a rule, are 
small and poorly bred. The majority are kept by peasants, and 
the flocks are very small. From ten to twenty is the average num- 
ber kept by one peasant. Under these conditions the eggs produced 



40 POULTRY FARMING 

can be sold very cheaply, as the fowls are fed almost entirely on 
waste and allowed at night to stay under any shelter which is most 
convenient. The Russian government has made several endeavors 
to aid the industry, but is hindered by the ignorance of a large 
mass of the population. 

In European countries, as a rule, the mass of the production is 
upon small farms and from small flocks. The greatest advance has 
been attained in sections where the producers have cooperated 
in securing better market conditions and better methods of ship- 
ping and marketing, and where there has been a steady and con- 
scientious attempt to improve both the stock and methods of 
management. The one great fact which the United States should 
learn and make use of from these countries is the necesshy, if the 
best results are to be attained, of immediate steps toward system- 
atic organization and cooperation, to see that the producer re- 
ceives adequate returns for his products. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is meant by the term poultry farming? 

2. Give the number and value of poultry in the United States in 1910. 

3. Give the percentage increase in numbers and production during the pre- 

ceding ten years. 

4. Where is the greatest egg producing section of the United States? 

5. Describe the method of poultry farming in the Petaluma district, Cal. 

6. Describe the method of poultry farming in the Vineland district, N. J. 

7. For what is the Little Ccmpton district famous? 

8. For what is the South Shore district famous? 

9. Name five modern developments which have revolutionized the poultry 

industry. 

10. Discuss poultry keeping as a business. 

11. As an employment. 

12. As an investment. 

13. For family use. 

14. For fancy purposes. 

15. Enumerate the various separate poultry industries. 

16. Name and discuss the advantages of poultry keeping. 

17. What are the possible disadvantages? 

18. What do you consider a reasonable profit from poultry? 

19. What are the risks of the business? 

20. Give a brief review of poultry keeping in the leading European countries. 

References. — The Twelfth and Thirteenth Census of the United States: 
Agriculture, "Distribution and Magnitude of the Poultry and Egg Industry," 
by G. F. Thompson, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Report, 1902. 



. CHAPTER II. 

LOCATION AND SITUATION. 

Location is a term used especially to designate different sections 
of the country. By it is meant the particular place which is selected 
for the poultry plant with reference to markets and climate. 

Situation deals with more definite points in regard to planning 
and lay-out of the plant, as position of buildings and yards. It 
has to do with the selection of the particular site for the plant on 
"the farm chosen. The study of the situation of the plant is appli- 
cable to all classes of poultry keeping, while the study of location 
is not important to the farmer owning his own farm or to the subur- 
ban poultry keeper who only keeps enough for his own use on land 
already acquired. 

Factors in Location. — The following factors have a definite 
relation to the matter of location and should be considered care- 
fully by the prospective investor: (1) Markets; (2) means of 
rapid communication and transportation; (3) type of poultry 
farming; (4) systems of poultry farming; (5) climatic and soil 
conditions. 

As in every business, a location which is adapted to the needs 
of the business is absolutely essential. Poor location has been the 
direct cause of many failures. 

Markets. — In the consideration of markets there are always two 
factors which are antagonistic, — namely, nearness to market and 
price of land. The nearer to the city the business is located the 
greater will be the amount of money required to be invested in 
land. This is especially true where it is desired to locate on the 
very outskirts of a large centre of population. Owing to the fact 
that poultry products can be shipped reasonable distances by rail, 
it is not always necessary to pay the price required for a close 
proximity to market. 

It is very essential, with keepers of small plants who desire to 
retail their products, that they be within short hauling distance 
of a market which will demand the amount and kind of product 
they expect to furnish. Such home markets can usually be found 
in small towns or villages where the price of near-by land is not a 
prohibitive factor. 

41 



42 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

With the commercial plant, most of the products are sold at 
wholesale or contracted for in large quantities, so that a near 
location is not essential. It will be found, by looking over the 
extensive poultry sections of the country, that the exclusive poultry 
farms are invariably located within a reasonable shipping distance 
of one or more of the large cities on the Atlantic or Pacific coast, 
cr near the thickly populated sections of the Middle States, and 
sometimes near large health and pleasure resorts. 

The idea is to be near a market which is large enough to avoid 
all danger of a surplus supply of products. 

Not only must markets be considered with reference to the 
adaptability of disposing of products, but a constant and reliable 
source of supplies and feed stuffs should be within easy reach. 

Poultry farms in the Western States have the advantage of 
cheap land and cheap grain. These factors, combined with im- 
proved methods of transportation, are bringing . about a greater 
distribution of the industry than ever before. In the past it has 
been considered more economical to transport grain long distances 
than to attempt to ship eggs so far, owing to the poor facilities 
offered and the great loss in transit. 

Poultry keeping is a business which adapts itself very readily 
to waste land or unimproved land. Very desirable sites may often 
be secured within easy hauling distance of a large market for very 
reasonable considerations, owing to the fact that the land is not 
suited to other branches of farm enterprise. Before selecting a 
location this question should receive careful consideration, thus 
avoiding a mistake at the very outset. 

Rapid Communication and Transportation. — It is essential to 
keep in close communication with the purchaser, whether the 
location be at a considerable distance from or very near the market. 
In this way the prices, which are changing daily, can be deter- 
mined, and the products disposed of at a time when the best returns 
will be realized. During frequent fluctuations of the market this 
may mean a saving of many dollars. It is desirable to keep in- 
formed regarding the needs of the purchaser, whether he be the 
commission merchant or the consumer. 

If one has these facilities, it will be possible to save much 
in the purchasing of feed and other supplies during periods of 
low prices. 

There are many times when some machines or parts of 
machines need repair, and much time can often be saved by 



FACTORS IN LOCATION 43 

making a quick order for prompt delivery. This is especially 
true in incubation and brooding, where injury to the heating 
equipment may be quickly repaired, thus saving many dollars 
from loss of chicks or eggs. 

Means of Communication. — The following are the more com- 
mon means of rapid communication, essential for the satisfactorjr 
management of modern poultry plants in this age of competition : 
(1) Rural free mail delivery, (2) local telephone, (3) long-distance 
telephone or telegraph connections. 

Not only does the presence of these necessities aid in facili- 
tating marketing, but farm values are greatly enhanced. By 
free mail delivery better roads are induced. These make it 
possible for the farmer to be much more prompt in all business 
proceedings. They also help greatly to banish isolation, which 
formerly was one of the greatest disadvantages of all the many 
types of farming. 

Shipping Facilities. — The site selected should be not far from 
a suitable trolley line which carries freight, or a railroad freight 
and express depot. The neces- 
sity of transporting the prod- 
ucts from the plant to the con- 
sumer as quickly as possible 
is thus met. The advantage 
to be derived by having all 
purchased feeds and supplies 

delivered by rail Within easy Fig. 30.— Rural trolley express, a conven- 

and quick reach Of the plant jent means of marketing poultry products. 

Trolley lines are near many poultry plants. 
IS important. iWO Or more (Photo by Rhode Island Co.) 

competing lines within easy 

reach are to be desired, as a guarantee of good service at reason- 
able rates. The presence of good roads between the farm and 
depot should be sought, a& the character of the load hauled is 
governed by the poorest place in the whole road. The presence of 
an interurban trolley system leading to a market centre is espe- 
cially desirable, owing to the quickness with which the products 
can be sent by trolley express if desired, and this usually with 
very short haul at either end (Fig. 30) . 

All poultry products are of such a perishable nature that a 
long haul over rough roads to distant markets or shipping points 
will so handicap the poultryman that he will find it impossible to 
compete with others who have the modern advantages outlined 




44 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

above; hence the importance of considering these matters care- 
fully before selecting a location. 

Type of Poultry Farming. — The first question which a poultry- 
man should decide is the type of farming which he wishes to carry 
on, and then find a location suitable for this purpose. For the 
farmer already located, it is a question of finding a type which is 
especially suited to his particular location as regards land and 
market. 

The following may be termed general types of poultry farming 
under which all the various branches will fall, each requiring 
peculiar conditions when considering desirable location: Egg 
farming, meat farming, and fancy poultry farming. 

Market Eggs. — In any branch of egg farming, especially that 
of market eggs, a first-class market within short shipping dis- 
tance is essential if the highest price is to be received. Every 
producer of market eggs should try to build up a demand for 
strictly fresh eggs. They should be guaranteed and put on the 
market when they are not over three or four days old. The best 
price can be received by shipping each day if the output will 
warrant it. This requires close proximity to markets. A location 
directly at the point of shipment is desirable, owing to the fact 
that if eggs are hauled great distances over rough roads the con- 
stant jarring tends to break the internal membranes and spoil the 
eggs for a high-class trade. 

Meat Farming. — With the production of meat entirely different 
conditions are met, the most noticeable one being the small amount 
of land which is required in any class of this type. On a piece of 
land containing from one to two acres, used for the production 
of market broilers, the profits during one year may be many thou- 
sands of dollars; providing feed and eggs for hatching are pur- 
chased, as is generally the case. For the production of capons 
or roasters more land is required, and this branch is best suited to 
farm conditions, where the birds can have unobstructed range dur- 
ing the developing season. Where the production of meat is made 
the main issue, the site selected must be near the point of con- 
sumption, so that the shipments, even in the summer months, 
will arrive at the consuming point with but one icing; otherwise 
they must be sent by refrigerator cars and an extra expense entailed 
thereby. 

Fancy Poultry Farming. — In the rearing of fancy poultry or 
high-class breeding stock a great latitude of choice is allowed the 



FACTORS IN LOCATION 



45 



investor. He should secure conditions which will guarantee the 
best development of the fowls. Then the markets will take care 
of themselves. If the breeder once secures good stock and, by- 
careful breeding, produces a winning strain, he will not have to 
hunt for markets. There are, however, certain locations where 
high-class birds have been bred for a longer time and where a 
greater demand has developed. In such places a market is much 
surer for the beginner with small investment. He will be aided 
in selling good birds by the reputation of the locality. He must 
be content in producing for local market at first, until he has be- 
come expert in competition with breeders of established reputa- 
tion. Another point to be considered is the fact that many of 



-500 



ITorthyard 

^1-m-i-iintmTTTrTTb 



-16 x 20*400 



Soutrh^ya-rd 



, soo- 



£& 




Community system, Semz - comnvunity 



Colony 



Fig. 31. — System of poultry farming. No fences are used in the community system. 
The most fencing is required in the semi-community system. Most labor is required in the 
colony system. 



our noted breeders are compelled to sell a quantity of their birds 
for meat at market prices. A suitable location with respect to 
this is an advantage. Where markets are suitable, it is often 
possible to combine market and fancy poultry raising, with excel- 
lent results. 

Systems of Poultry Farming. — The common systems of poultry 
keeping which have given success in all parts of the country may 
be classified as follows: Community system, semi-community, 
and colony system (Fig. 31). 

Community system is a term applied to that method of housing 
in which the birds are confined in large flocks under one roof. 
The poultry houses are usually of the long-house type, in some 
cases as long as five hundred feet. The yards, if any, run to the 
front, and in some instances both to the front and to the rear. In 
this system Ihe amount of land required is relatively small, con- 



46 



LOCATION AND SITUATION 



sidering the large number of birds kept. It is well adapted to egg 
farms located on expensive land very near large centres of popu- 
lation. The birds are closely confined and under observation at 
all times. The disadvantages are danger of fire and of disease, 
and extra expense required for fencing. This type of long house 
is often used with only one to two yards. The house is then not 
divided into small pens, as many as five hundred birds being kept 
in one flock (Fig. 32). 

Semi-community is a term applied to plants in which the birds 
are kept in smaller units, consisting usually of single or, at the 
most, double pen houses arranged along streets or roads with yards 
running to the front or rear. The pens are from twenty-five to one 




Fig. 32. — Large community house, holding five hundred birds. 



hundred feet apart, depending on the length of the runs. This 
type requires more land than the former and more labor to attend. 
Advantages are: Giving the birds much more room, doing away 
with the danger of fire, and reducing the risk of the transmission 
of disease. 

These first two systems are suited to the production of 
market eggs. In the breeding of high-class exhibition and fancy 
specimens, it is absolutely essential to keep the different flocks 
separate. The semi-community system does this well. It is 
also adapted to the village or farm flock where the- nearness 
of a neighbor or the presence of some crop which would easily 
be destroyed makes it desirable to keep them securely yarded 
(Fig. 33). 

Colony system is a term applied to the method of dividing birds 
into small flocks of from twenty to fifty and scattering them in 



FACTORS IN LOCATION 



47 



small colony houses about the farm; no fencing is used; the birds 
have free range at all times. The feeding and other work is usually 




Pig. 33. — Semi-community poultry plant. Hatching and brooding buildings in back- 
ground, and isolated single-pen and double-pen laying houses distributed over the rest of the 
plant. Roads and double yarding are common in this system. 

done by an attendant driving around from coop to coop with a 
wagon. This system is adapted to low-priced land located at 




Fig. 34. — Colony houses for poultry on extensive range. The house in the foreground shows 

cheap construction. 

considerable distance from cities; it can be used to excellent ad- 
vantage on waste land, such as brush fields or rocky wooded hill- 
sides (Fig. 34). It is suited to the raising of roasters, capons, 



48 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

and turkeys on a large scale, since they do much better on free 
range and the cost of feed is reduced to a minimum. The cost of 
labor per bird is usually high where a system of this kind is em- 
ployed, but by the use of wagons or feed carts it should not be 
excessive. 

The colony system works out to very good advantage in com- 
bination with other branches of farm work, such as fruit growing. 
The colony houses may be scattered among the trees, thus making 
the same land produce two crops. With dairy or beef farming, 
the houses may be scattered about the permanent pastures, where 
they can be easily attended and do no damage. 

Climatic and Soil Conditions. — Poultry will do well on nearly 
all kinds of soil and under nearly all climatic conditions. But 
there are certain soils which should be avoided, or expensive means 
will be necessary to correct them. 

Dry air should always be chosen for a site. Along the banks 
or vallej^s of large streams and along seashores it is apt to be too 
damp during the winter months and foggy at other seasons. Poul- 
try will thrive well during very cold weather, providing the roosting 
quarters are kept above freezing. Fowls always do better in well- 
ventilated, cool houses than in close, stuffy, damp, warm ones; 
the latter are unsanitary. Sudden changes in weather are to be 
avoided. The weather record for many years back should be con- 
sulted to find the average conditions which are to be expected. 
The prevailing wind direction, its velocity, and the character of 
weather which it brings should be determined. 

A mild climate is to be desired rather than an exceedingly hot 
one. The most southern States will never be as desirable for 
poultry keeping as the more northern latitude, say above 35 de- 
grees, owing to the extreme heat during the most of the summer 
months. Dampness from the Gulf Stream is a drawback for the 
southeastern States. High dry areas are very desirable, one of the 
best ones in the country being the central plain running from 
Dakota to Texas. Birds of maximum size can be more easily and 
cheaply produced in this section than in any other region of 
similar extent in the United States. With the perfection of cold- 
storage systems and improved means of transportation, the Central 
West will undoubtedly some day be the poultry centre of North 
America. Especially will this be true as the centres of population 
keep moving westward. 

The type of soil best suited for poultry keeping is a sandy loam. 



SITUATION 49 

It should be friable and porous, so as to dry up quickly after a 
rain. There should be a porous, gravelly subsoil, which insures 
perfect underdrainage. This cleanses the yards and carries manure 
into the soil where plants and grass roots can use it. The water 
table should be so low that in no place moisture appears above 
the surface, even by the presence of damp soil when turned over 
by the plow. It should be a warm soil, and if warm it will be dry. 

The runs should be so constructed that it will be possible to 
get into them with a plow to turn under the manure and cleanse 
them. A system of alternate cropping should be devised to utilize 
the manure which is voided in the runs. Green feed can be more 
easily and cheaply supplied in this way than in any other. 

A heavy muck or clay soil should always be avoided, as poor 
results are sure to follow its use. If it is necessary to locate on 




Fig. 35. — Ideal location for poultry farming. Rolling land gives good drainage and proper 
air circulation. (Photo by Southern Railway Land Department.) 

such a soil, it can be greatly improved b} r tile underdrains and by 
heavy applications of lime. If the area is small it can be much 
improved by mixing sand with the top soil. 

Character of Country. — A slightly rolling country (Fig. 35) is 
much better than perfectly -level stretches or an extreme moun- 
tainous section. There is better atmospheric drainage than on 
level sections, and much less liability of heavy winds. A contour 
and soil map of the country under study or observation will help 
greatly, if it is impossible to spend the desired time in a personal 
inspection. It is very desirable that the ground be gone over 
thoroughly by the prospective investor himself. 

Situation. — In considering the matter of situation the important 
factors which must be constantly borne in mind are : (1) To have 
the conditions as nearly perfect as possible for the health of the 
4 



50 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

birds, and (2) the consideration of labor and time required in 
attendance. This should be reduced to the lowest possible point 
without impairing the efficiency. The following factors should 
be considered carefully in reference to the above before buildings 
are started: (1) Size and shape of land; (2) soil and surface 
drainage; (3) slope or land contour; (4) water supply; (5) econ- 
omy of time and labor; (6) arrangement of buildings; (7) an 
attractive appearance when complete. 

Size and Shape of Land.— The area of land secured will largely 
influence the system of housing and yarding which will be followed. 
A farm of forty or fifty acres will allow of developing an immense 
business on the colony plan as well as giving ample space for grow- 
ing much of the feed at home. A farm of four or five acres will 
take care of approximately 1,000 layers on a very intensive com- 
munity basis, and provide range for raising the young chicks. No 
feed except pasture can be grown on such a small area. 

If possible some land on the place should be in trees, preferably 
fruit trees, so as to have shade available. Artificial shade can be 
constructed, but it is not so satisfactory as the cool, moist shade 
provided by growing trees. 

The shape of the farm is an important factor. A square lot of 
land has the following advantages over a long rectangular one. 

1. If the area is large it is better to place the buildings in. 
the centre near the dwelling house and work the farm all ways 
from this central location, thus saving much time which would 
be spent in going long distances many times a day to do the work, 
as is required when the farm is narrow and the buildings located 
at one end. 

2. It is practically impossible to have all the flock constantly 
under the eye of the attendant when they are too scattered; the 
danger from loss by hawks and thieves of all kinds is apt to be 
much greater. 

3. If the plant can be planned to have the runs arranged as 
nearly as possible in the form of squares, the cost for fencing and 
posts will be less and the amount of green feed grown in them will 
last much longer than in the long narrow yards. 

Soil and Surface Drainage. — The particular site selected for the 
houses and runs must, above all else, be perfectly dry, and if not 
naturally drained it should be underdrained. A wet soil is usually 
cold, owing to the exclusion of warm air and to the temperature 
being lowered by evaporation. Wet soils are unhealthy, as there 



SITUATION 



51 



is no sunlight or air entering to purify them ; and many of the com- 
mon poultry diseases are spread by this one improper condition. 
The drainage, whether natural or artificial, should be away from 
the poultry house and not toward it (Fig. 36). This applies 
especially to surface drainage. 

After heavy showers in summer or during melting snows in 
winter, there is usually a heavy surface wash on sloping land, and 
the buildings should be arranged to be out of line with it. If this 
is impossible artificial means, such as open gutters, should be so 
constructed as to protect the buildings from such water. The 




Fig. 36. — Houses and yards on a hillside, giving good drainage. 

presence of grass about the houses and in the runs tends to stop 
the surface washing and should be encouraged. Hillsides which 
are exceptionally springy should be avoided, as it is then almost 
impossible to secure dry soil conditions. This makes the houses 
and fence posts rot away quickly if great care is not used in their 
construction. It also makes wet conditions underfoot for both 
poultryman and birds. Wet soil gives the hens wet, dirty feet, 
making clean eggs impossible; and clean eggs are one of the 
requisites of a guaranteed trade. 

Slope or Land Contour. — Air drainage is very essential, and 
atmospheric conditions should be studied before making the selec- 
tion. Air at all times contains moisture. When there are no gen- 
eral winds the air is always acted upon by gravity. The cool, 



52 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

moist air flows down the slopes and settles in valleys, swamps, 
and low places. Thus, a rolling country is most desirable, and 
the plant should be placed on high ground with a slight slope. A 
swampy place should be avoided, not only from the fact that 
there is a constant stream of damp air falling into it, but it is 
also the natural catch basin for all surface drainage from the 
higher land around. In nearly every case of this kind it will be 
impossible to drain or put it in proper condition for health of the 
flock. 

A southerly, southeasterly, or southwesterly slope is the best 
for the more northern parts of the country. If the prevailing 
wind is westerly, a southeastern slope is the one desired. In gen- 
eral, the morning sun directly in the house is the best. It is not a 
good policy to place the house on the very crest of a hill, as there 
is usually not sufficient protection against the northern winds in 
winter. If the house is placed on the south side just over the crest, 
the air currents from the north are deflected up and over the house, 
thus making it much warmer and of a much evener temperature 
at all times. Forest growths on the north and west sides of the 
farm shut out much of the undesirable wind. 

A southern slope has the great advantage of receiving the 
direct rays of the sun, and is thus much warmer, due to the radia- 
tion thus secured. A moderate slope is to be preferred to a very 
steep one. With steep slopes there is great washing and gullying 
during heavy rains. The labor of carrying feed and attending to 
the flock, if a large one, is greatly increased by going up and down 
steep grades. 

Water Supply. — Stagnant waters about the poultry farm are 
very undesirable, but a constant supply of fresh, pure water for 
drinking purposes is a great asset to any plant. A satisfactory 
supply of water may be attained by any of the following methods, 
which are arranged in the order of their value : 

1. A perpetual stream of running water through the farm, 
which not only acts as a source of pure water but aids perfect soil 
and surface drainage. This method is most economical, and is 
desirable where the colony system is used. Where the birds are 
kept by the community plan, a large number in small runs, it is 
not advisable to have a brook running through the yards, due to 
the danger of contamination. 

2. It is often possible to dam such a stream to form a head 
of water on elevated ground not far from the plant, so that 



SITUATION -53 

a small reservoir may be formed and pipes run to the desired 
points of distribution. 

3. The presence of a never-failing spring at some elevated 
position may be utilized in the same way, there being no power 
required for distribution. 

4. If the source of water supply is below the level of the plant, 
the water can be elevated to standpipes or reservoirs in any of 
the following ways: Hydraulic rams, gasoline engines, water- 
wheels, or windmills. 

5. The use of a driven well and compression storage tank 
operated by gasoline engine will be found an efficient and economi- 
cal method of furnishing water where natural sources are absent. 

The one point of most importance in laying out a water sys- 
tem is to take the water from above the plant and carry the waste 
water below, thus doing away with contamination. The more 
naturally this system can be brought about, the more desirable is 
the location, as a greater economy in labor is secured. 

Economy of Time and Labor. — The poultry plant, whether 
large or small, should be laid out with the idea of saving steps. 
The greatest saving in this respect can be made by care in planning 
the location of the buildings. The main building should be cen- 
trally located. It usually contains a feed room and general work- 
room, as for fattening, killing, and picking. The incubation and 
brooding equipment and the laying houses should be so placed in 
relation to the main building that the entire round of work can be 
done without retracing steps and with the shortest distance pos- 
sible. Chick ranges should be located as near the centre of the 
plant as practicable, as the birds require feeding much oftener 
when young. 

A good system of roads and paths should be constructed 
so as to be dry at all times; nothing is more disagreeable than a 
muddy walk. These should be in direct communication with the 
public highway. 

The two heaviest expenses in connection with egg production 
are feed and labor; the latter can be materially reduced by care 
in planning the plant. 

Arrangement of Buildings. — The direction of the most objec- 
tionable winds should be studied, and the buildings so arranged 
that the back or low portion is toward the strongest wind. If it 
is north or west, all windows, doors, and yards should be in the 
front, which would be protected by the building itself. If no 



54 LOCATION AND SITUATION 

natural windbreaks are present, it is advisable to make plantings 
of hardy evergreens near the different houses to break the force 
of strong winds. The buildings for housing the birds should be so 
located as to receive the early morning sun, and the windows so 
placed that sun will shine directly into them during the entire day. 
During some part of the day the sun should strike every part with 
which the birds come in contact. 

An Attractive Appeara?ice when Complete. — The general ar- 
rangement and grouping of the buildings should be such as will 
give a pleasing appearance to the place as a whole when complete. 
The general shape and character of all structures should harmo- 
nize when finished. The largest and most attractive buildings 
should be placed in the most conspicuous place, usually nearest 
the highway, where they will give a solid appearance to the passer- 
by. Usually they will be more conveniently located in such a 
position. In a fancy or high-class breeding plant, and to a greater 
or less degree on any kind of a poultry farm, the general appear- 
ance of the plant as a whole will serve as advertising. If the indi- 
vidual buildings and the group are neat and attractive in appear- 
ance, the natural supposition is that care and skill are exercised 
in the handling and breeding of stock. 

Adapting Business to Conditions. — The farmer or poultryman 
who began in a small way and has developed his business to a 
large magnitude cannot now reconsider location. His present 
location represents a large investment which it is impossible in 
most cases to move. Future growth and development must be 
adapted to the present conditions. It is more a question of what 
branch of the business will be best suited to the present location. 

The preceding paragraphs in regard to location will help persons 
so located to select that branch best suited to their circumstances. 
It is only to the poultryman who is starting an entirely new enter- 
prise or the one who has decided to move to a more ideal location 
before greatly increasing his plant that the items of location are 
important. In most instances it is a case of meeting present 
market requirements rather than moving to others. For instance, 
the production of market poultry combined with egg production 
is found to suit market conditions in some sections and pay the 
greatest return. In other sections the large markets may demand 
broilers, or in many cases a premium is offered for ducks. In 
either instance development should be along the lines required, to 
the extent which the poultryman's capital and skill will warrant. 



REVIEW 55 

The system of housing will also be governed by the amount 
and character of land available on the present location. The several 
paragraphs regarding the three systems of housing already given 
in this chapter should be reread by the student with this type of 
poultryman in mind. 

A general knowledge of the whole subject of poultry is neces- 
sary before one can make a wise selection. One who already has 
a farm can usually find at least one or more branches of the busi- 
ness which will work out under his conditions. Those factors 
which are not desirable can be eliminated or corrected, as drain- 
age and windbreaks. In most cases the problem is one of situation 
rather than one of location. 

REVIEW. 

1. Define the terms "location" and "situation." 

2. Discuss location with reference to markets. 

3. What are the essentials in rapid communication and transportation? 

4. What is the influence of type of poultry farming upon location? 

5. Enumerate and define the three systems of poultry farming. 

6. Discuss location with reference to soil conditions. 

7. What climate and character of country are best adapted to poultry keeping? 

8. How will the size and shape of the farm affect the situation of the plant? 

9. Why is there need of good soil drainage and surface drainage? 

10. What is meant by atmospheric drainage? 

11. Why should the poultry plant be situated on a southern slope? 

12. Give in their order of efficiency the possible sources of water supply. 

13. What is the direct value of having the plant systematically arranged? 

14. What is the value of an attractive plant? 

15. Do you consider it advisable to attempt to adapt business to location and 

other circumstances? Under what conditions? 



CHAPTER III. 

MAKING A SUCCESSFUL START. 

A Modest Beginning. — With every business enterprise, a suc- 
cessful beginning — that is, organizing and planning the character 
and scope of the work to be followed — is of the utmost importance. 
Ultimate success will depend largely on the method of making the 
start. A modest beginning is likely to bring good results in much 
quicker time than a start on a larger scale. The tendency too 
often is for the beginner to lay a foundation beyond his experience. 
Many mistakes and great disappointments can be avoided by 
taking a little longer time for development and to allow the busi- 
ness to rest on safe and sure principles. Such a course is better 
than to begin with the handicap of too much stock and too little 
experience. 

Mistakes are made by those who have had years of experience, 
as well as by the amateur. Many instances might be cited wherein 
poultry keepers, even with years of experience, have taken false 
steps in the way of increasing their plants, in changing their 
methods, or in reorganization. Such examples tend to prove the 
advisability of a modest start, followed by normal development 
each year until the maximum efficiency of the plant is reached. 
This point will vary with different poultry keepers and in different 
locations even under the same methods of management. So many 
factors are to be considered that it will be impossible to foretell 
the exact extent to which a business can be safely developed until 
careful trials and comparisons have been made. 

Importance of Personality. — Both experience and training are 
essential; but another factor which overreaches either of them in 
the matter of insuring success is the personality of the poultryman 
himself. In other words, he must be sure of himself first. He 
must submit to a careful self-examination and analyze his own 
feelings and manner of living and thinking in order to know whether 
he is suited to his chosen work. The first requisite is to have a 
personal liking for the business; and if his ancestors have been 
lovers of the work and have succeeded in it, so much the better. 
If this analysis shows factors which would tend to hinder him, 
the step should by all means be avoided. There is perhaps no 
56 



LEARNING THE POULTRY BUSINESS 57 

other business which requires more unremitting attention to de 
tails and conscientious thought and action than poultry keeping. 

The following qualities are to be looked for in a successful 
poultryman : 

The first requisite is that of sound common sense. Many in- 
stances will arise where no previous action or condition can guide, 
and where quick, correct decisions will mean the avoidance of 
disaster. 

He must also be capable of planning well and carefully so as 
to figure probable success and failure very minutely. 

Not only must he plan well, but he must execute completely, 
for one requisite without the other means nothing. 

He should be methodical, so as to develop a careful system in 
all the details of the work. 

He must be alert, capable of seeing an opportunity when it offers. 

These qualities should be combined with sagacity and shrewd- 
ness, especially in the marketing end of the enterprise. He should 
have steadfastness of purpose, — that is, he should not be change- 
able. This is important in the poultry business, because there 
are so many varying beliefs and systems in the different operations 
of hatching and rearing. If the poultry keeper is not sure of his 
own method, he will succeed at none. 

Lastly, he must be capable of concentrating his time and atten- 
tion on the work. He must have system in all the details; and he 
must carry their essentials constantly in mind, as in this way only 
can he be sure that nothing is neglected. 

Learning the Poultry Business. — A person desiring to learn the 
poultry business to-day has many advantages which formerly 
could not be realized. Among the greatest of these are the results 
of accumulated experience. The opportunities for knowledge 
available to the average amateur who wishes to become versed 
in the details and requirements of poultry keeping may be grouped 
under one of the following heads : (1) Farm experience, (2) prac- 
tical work at large poultry plants, (3) personal observation, 
(4) reading of papers and books, (5) scientific and practical train- 
ing in college or school. 

For the poultryman to realize a combination of all these 
opportunities would be very desirable. At least two of them 
should always go together, — namely, the actual farm or poultry ex- 
perience and as much scientific and systematic training as possible. 

A young man who has had the advantage of being brought 



58 MAKING A SUCCESSFUL START 

up on a farm has the training which gives him a general idea of the 
subject in a practical way. If he desires to pursue poultry keeping 
on an extensive scale, he should spend at least one season at some 
large commercial plant, so that he may become familiar with the 
planning and execution of the work under the right conditions. 
If he intends to devote some time to a scientific study of the sub- 
ject, it is advisable to acquire the practical experience first, as 
he will thus get more out of the advanced training. 

To any poultry keeper, whether old or young, experienced or 
inexperienced, the poultry press offers a fine field for the study 
and expression of ideas and teachings. The reasons for this are 
brought about by the constantly changing conditions. No matter 
in which of the various ways he acquires his experience and train- 
ing, if he is able to apply the factor of personal observation and 
to deduce therefrom correct principles, the learner is well on the 
road to success. 

Land, Labor, and Capital. — Success in any branch of agricul- 
ture is dependent largely on the proper adjustment of three eco- 
nomic factors, — land, labor, and capital. The poultryman's 
capital may be considered as either fixed or circulating. 

Fixed capital is the term applied to investment in permanent 
equipment, as land, buildings, teams, appliances, tools, and 
machinery — things which are constantly used in production. 

Circulating capital is limited to that which is consumed in the 
process of production, and which is being used up and replaced 
by material of the same kind, or which having been returned is 
being reinvested. It is this form of capital which is constantly 
changing, each time coming back with increase, provided the 
business is conducted at a profit. 

The Poultryman's Capital. — The following classification may 
serve to illustrate: 

1. Fixed capital or permanent investment: 

(a) Land: Natural value plus all permanent improvements, such as 
roads, fences, wells, drains, and orchards. 

(6) Buildings: Dwelling; farm buildings, as barn; poultry buildings, as 
henhouses, feed houses, and incubator cellar; building equipment which is a 
permanent part of the building, or fixtures. 

(c) Equipment : Team ; implements for working the land ; incubators and 
brooders; fowls which are used in production — excluding young birds and 
birds grown for meat only. 

2. Circulating capital: 

Feed, seeds, and miscellaneous supplies; market eggs or live poultry grow- 
ing or unsold ; money on hand which is required to pay labor and carry on the 
business. 



LAND, LABOR AND CAPITAL 59 

The 'proper adjustment of capital depends largely on the type 
of poultry farm, the character of the market, and the personality 
of the poultryman himself. In working out the problem of adjust- 
ment it must always be remembered that production is limited 
by the minimum of any one of three factors. With a small area 
of land, production cannot be large, no matter how much capital 
and labor one may have at his disposal. With a scarcity of suitable 
labor a large investment in land and equipment means little. 
Likewise an abundance of land and labor without suitable buildings 
and equipment will bring poor results. 

In deciding on the proportion of the original fund to invest 
as fixed capital and that to be kept for running the plant, no 
absolute rule can be laid down; but it must be remembered that 
many failures are caused by an overcapitalization at the start. 
One-half in fixed capital is perhaps a safe rule for the beginner, 
leaving one-half for the running expenses of the enterprise. This 
should be kept constantly on the move, and each time it should 
come back with increase. After the business has become well 
established, it may be found profitable to increase the fixed capital 
so as to make a larger production possible, and it can be more 
safely done at that time. 

As the business increases in size and efficiency the proportionate 
investment in circulating capital will grow as a natural consequence, 
carrying with it greater profits. 

Land is a special form of capital. It is a natural agent, limited 
in extent. A considerable area of land is to be desired for the best 
results on a poultry farm. If sufficient land is available, it will 
be possible to give the birds an abundance of room for range and 
in that way keep the ground clean and free from disease and gen- 
eral disorders. There is little danger of having too much land. If 
there is an abundance of land, the farm can be so planned that a 
large proportion, if not the entire supply, of grain can be grown at 
home. The feed bill is the poultryman's greatest expense and calls 
for a large reserve in circulating capital. With the increasing 
prices for cereal feed, the more of it that can be grown at home 
the better. 

A mistake too often made is that of hiring and developing a large 
business on land which is not owned by the poultryman. This 
arrangement is almost sure to be unfortunate. The erection of 
buildings on hired land is always a direct loss, if they are of a 
permanent nature. They become a part of the property and can 



60 MAKING A SUCCESSFUL START 

not be taken away. Then there is the danger of having to move 
at any time, unless a lease is held. Even a long lease has dis- 
advantages. A maximum profit cannot be realized except when 
the farm itself is owned by the poultryman, enabling him to plan 
his rotations and development with a definite scheme of growth 
in mind. 

The investment in buildings should be limited to the economical 
and safe housing of the live stock on the plant. The cost, varying 
in different sections of the country, will depend on climatic con- 
ditions and the cost of building material. Expensive buildings 
are undesirable, requiring a large first investment and tying up 
too much of the capital in the beginning. The interest on the 
investment is an important item, and the cost of repairs is usually 
much more. 

Any equipment, such as a windmill or engine, if in accord with 
the size and character of the plant, has a definite economic value 
in being a great labor saver and a constant source of indirect 
revenue. An undercapitalization in equipment means a high 
cost and limited amount of products, which will, of necessity, 
greatly lower the profits. In choosing an equipment, durability 
rather than first cost should be considered. In purchasing sup- 
plies, such as incubators and brooders, the most satisfactory 
results are generally realized by obtaining reliable, tested appa- 
ratus, even though the first cost be greater. 

Labor. — The character and amount of labor must be governed 
largely by local conditions, and it will always be found that this 
factor usually decides, more than any other, the degree of success 
in poultry endeavors. The average investor, if wise, will usually 
start with his own labor only, and later increase the magnitude 
of operations enough to warrant hiring outside help if considered 
expedient. This way is slower but much surer. In all branches 
of poultry work there is a great chance for brains to replace labor 
to a large extent. The idea should always be to reduce labor to 
the minimum by the use of such labor-saving devices as are effi- 
cient and which do not tend to eliminate the personal factor. 

System for Beginners. — For most persons starting with small 
investments, either in capital or experience, the colony system, 
wherein the birds are kept in small flocks scattered over consider- 
able areas, will be the best and surest way. This requires the 
smallest possible investment in fixed capital, and will give a maxi- 
mum production with the least amount of scientific care and 



TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS 61 

attention. Later on, if found desirable, the business may be in- 
tensified and the method of- management changed to meet changed 
conditions. 

Time to Start. — For the production of market eggs the best 
time to begin actual operations will be with the spring hatching. 
The houses may be built during the summer and made ready for 
the mature pullets in the fall. This will give good results in the 
least possible time. When it is desirable to start with adult birds 
for egg production, it will be necessary to have the houses built 
during the fall and winter and have the birds in them by January, 
so that they can be fed and cared for at least two months before 
the eggs are saved for hatching. 

Where market broilers are the object, the incubator and brooder 
houses should be completed by the first of September, so that the 
first hatches can be accommodated by that time. The broilers 
may then be ready by Thanksgiving time, which is the opening 
of the broiler season. 

All things considered, the spring of the year will generally 
be the best time to start, as the birds can be cared for during the 
summer much easier than during the winter. It is cheaper to 
hatch and rear young birds than to purchase a considerable num- 
ber of adults. The buyer of adults is not always sure of getting 
good laj^ers. The purchase of a few adults of known ancestry and 
good breeding is the safest way to start. Their eggs may be 
hatched and a good strain built up in that way. 

To Achieve Success. — A small beginning, with from 200 to 
500 birds, in connection with some other branch of farm work, 
from which the support of the family can come, may develop in 
a few years into a sound and profitable business. The growth of 
the work each year can be governed by the success attained, by 
allowing the profits to pay for each yearly increase. This method, 
combined with as much previous practical training as possible, 
will be a safe guarantee of success and will afford a pleasant occu- 
pation to any prospective poultryman. 

Hindrances to Success. — The three main causes of failure are 
the following: (1) A wrong personality of the poultryman him- 
self, in not being suited either mentally or physically to the work. 
(2) Next in importance is the nonattention to details, or leaving 
them to others whose interest is not what it should be. (3) Start- 
ing with weak, impure, or poorly bred birds. This last factor seri- 
ously needs to be considered, and it will pay the purchaser well 



62 MAKING A SUCCESSFUL START 

to look far and carefully before purchasing the adult birds which 
are to make or mar his whole future. 

System the Key Word. — The one point above all others which 
the poultryman must be sure to consider is the absolute necessity 
of system in all branches of his work. The poultry business, which 
is composed largely of definite details, requires a careful systema- 
tizing, not only in the keeping of books and accounts, but in all 
the routine work, — as, feeding, hatching, brooding, breeding, and 
preparing for market. The work can be done much more easily 
and cheaply by having system; it can be done each time with the 
same degree of care, and the danger of overlooking any detail 
is lessened. The three stepping-stones to success in the work are 
system, promptness, and energy. 

REVIEW. 

1. Why is a modest beginning to be desired? 

2. Why is the right personality so essential in poultry keeping? 

3. Enumerate the qualities of a successful poultryman. 

4. Name four ways in which it is possible to learn the poultry business. 

5. What are the three business principles of poultry keeping? 

6. Give a classification of a poultryman's capital. 

7. What is meant by fixed and by circulating capital? 
S. In what respect is land capital? 

f). What should be the economic limit to investment in buildings? 

10. What is the invariable result of overcapitalization at the start? 

11. Discuss the economic limitation of production in respect to capitalization. 

12. How is the colony system especially adapted to the small investor? 

13. What influences the time to start in the poultry business? 

14. What is the safest procedure to achieve success? 

15. Enumerate factors which tend to hinder success. 

16. What is the value of system in all operations? 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE BREEDS OF POULTRY. 

The breeds and varieties of poultry are so numerous and 
represent so many mixed characteristics and features that it is 
practically impossible to give a simple complete classification, 
allowing each breed and variety its legitimate place. A practical 
classification, in order to be of any definite value, must consider 
economic features as well as external points of shape, size, and color. 




Fig. 37. — Pair of jungle fowl (Gallus bankiva), one of the ancestors of the present 
domestic breeds. The light, active breeds resemble this ancestor. (Photos of Figs. 37 and 
38 by the Station of Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.) 

It is the purpose of this chapter to give a general discussion 
of the breeds of poultry as we know them to-daj^, consider the 
origin of the domestic breeds, and give a classification of them. 

Origin of the Domestic Fowl. — The domestic fowl belongs to 
a group of scratching birds which includes turkeys, guinea-fowls, 
pheasants, partridges, and others. The progenitors of the domes- 
tic hen of to-day were wild species, and it is probable that it 
originated from the crosses or mingling of the blood of two quite 
different species, the most important one being the wild fowl 
common in the jungles of India and Southern China, which is 
known as Gallus bankiva (Fig. 37). 

The jungle fowl is about one-third the size of the domesticated 
one, having a flattened tail, single comb, and wattles resembling 

63 



64 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



those of the domestic fowl. The female is much smaller and has 
less comb and wattles than the male. The shanks of both sexes 
are willow colored, resembling those of the black-breasted red 
game fowl. They are capable of considerable flight, but in 
other habits resemble to a great extent the domestic forms. 
Breeding experiments show that they are completely fertile with 
the domestic birds. 

The reason for concluding that a second species, other than 
the Gallus bankiva, was present in the evolution of the present 
type is the existence of characteristics which it is impossible ,to 







Fig. 38. — A pair of Aseel 



fowls, the Malay ancestor of domestic birds, 
breeds resemble this ancestor. 



The heavy meat 



breed from the jungle fowl alone. With the use of the Aseel or 
Malay fowl as one parent (Fig. 38) a complete ancestry is explained, 
and an intelligent history of the domestication can be written. 
This ancient Aseel fowl is now practically extinct, but was undoubt- 
edly the oldest fowl in domestication, having been bred in India 
3,000 years ago. These Aseel fowls show a pea comb, stout yellow 
legs, a stocky body, and an unwillingness to fly high in the air. 
These characteristics are entirely different from those of the 
bankiva fowls, which are so prominent in our heavier breeds, as 
Brahmas and Cochins. 

The process of domestication can be traced from about 1000 



PLACE OF POULTRY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 



65 



B.C., where the Institute of Menu alludes to the sport of cock- 
fighting, which was probably carried on with the Aseel. From 
that time on we find domestic fowls constantly referred to in early 
records, and their improvement was consistent with the advance 
in civilization. They were gradually distributed westward and 
over the continent, coming into Europe from Central China by 
way of Siberia and Russia. They were carried to the New World 
early in the period of colonization, where they had formerly been 
entirely unknown. 

Place of Poultry in the Animal Kingdom. — As members of 
Gallus bankiva are, undoubtedly, the leading ancestors of our 
domestic breeds of to-day, it is interesting to trace the place which 
poultry occupy in the animal kingdom and to determine their rela- 
tion to other types of birds. The following analysis gives in an 
abbreviated form the place of poultry in the animal kingdom : 

consisting of animals with cellular tissues and 
true eggs. 

animals having an internal skeleton, backbone, 
and dorsal nervous cord which is separated 
from the body cavity; circulation complete; 
limbs not more than four. 

animals . of the subkingdom Vertebrata having 
skull, heart, and brain. 

Craniota with amnion and allantois; no gills; 
epidermal scales or feathers. 

true birds; feathered; four limbs, hind pair for 
progression on land or water, front pair for 
flight; no teeth; three eyelids; heart with four 
cavities; lungs. 

birds having a keel or breastbone and functional 
wings. 

an order of Carinatce which are terrestrial in their 
habits, having short, stout legs, suited to 
scratching; and with stout, arched beak for 
seed eating. Gallus is a true representative of 
this order, and is the ancestor of our domestic 
fowls. 

The class Aves, or birds, represents one of the most clearly 
defined classes of the whole animal kingdom, having a great many 
divisions or subclasses. They are aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial 
in their habits; all types, however, show great similarity of struc- 
ture. The order Rasores, to which our domestic fowls belong, 
contains a great many birds which are very valuable to man. This 
order, in general, is characterized by short, arched beak; short 
concave wings, unfit for extended flight; stout legs of medium 
5 



Kingdom, 

Series, 


Animal. 
Metazoa: 


Branch, 


Vertebrata: 


Division II, 


Craniota: 


Province II, 


Sauropsida. 


Class IV, 


Aves: 


Subclass II, 


Carinata>: 


Order VI, 


Rasores: 



66 BREEDS OF POULTRY 

length; four toes, usually three in front, these being united by a 
short web. The features of the body are large and coarse as com- 
pared to birds of flight. The males have brighter-colored plumage 
than the females. Their main feed is grain. Common represen- 
tatives of this order are domestic chickens, turkeys, pheasants, 
partridges, and grouse. 

Two Classifications of Poultry. — Two general classifications of 
poultry may be made : First is the so-called standard classification. 
A book on this is edited and published by the American Poultry 
Association. The points in this classification are intended to 
guide judges and breeders of exhibition poultry. The book does 
not serve as a practical guide to the economic points of the breeds. 
This classification is based primarily upon the origin and distribu- 
tion of the breeds, and not so much upon their economic import- 
ance. In a great many cases their economic possibilities have 
been the direct outgrowth of environment at their place of origin. 

The second classification might be termed utility. It is based 
on the economic possibilities which the different breeds offer for 
market purposes. 

Either of these classifications must be relatively arbitrary. 
There are a number of breeds which possess characteristics, any 
one of which, considered singly, might place them in one class and 
then in another. 

STANDARD CLASSIFICATION. 

The standard classification of domestic poultry includes all 
classes, representing thirty-eight different breeds which contain 
109 varieties. It is impossible to give here a detailed description 
of each. The breeds and varieties are given in a classified form; 
this is followed by an outline of their historical development and 
distribution. 

Standard Classification of Domestic Fowls. 

Class No. and name. Breed. Variety. 

1. American Plymouth Rock: Barred, white, buff, silver pencilled, 

partridge, and Columbian. 
Wyandotte: Silver, golden, white, buff, black, 

partridge, silver pencilled, and 

Columbian. 
Java: Black and mottled. 

Dominique: Rose comb. 

Rhode Island Red: Single comb and rose comb. 
Buckeye: Pea comb. 

2. Asiatic Brahma: Light and dark. 

Cochin: Buff, partridge, white, and black. 

Langshan: Black and white. 



STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 



67 



3. Mediterranean.. .Leghorn: 



Minorca: 

Spanish : 

Blue Andalusian. 

Ancona. 

4. English Dorking: 

Redcap : 
Orpington : 

5. Polish Polish: 

6. Hamburg Hamburg: 

7. French Houdan: 

Crevecceur : 
La Fleche: 

8. Game and Game 

Bantam Game: 



Game Bantam: 



9. Oriental. 



10. Ornamental 
Bantam. . 



11. Miscellaneous.. 



. Cornish : 
Sumatra : 
Malay : 
Malay Bantam: 

. Sebright : 
Rose comb: 
Booted : 
Brahma: 
Cochin : 
Japanese: - 
Polish: 

.Silkie: 
Sultan : 
Frizzle: 



Single-comb brown, rose-comb 
brown, single-comb white, single- 
comb buff, rose-comb buff, single- 
comb black, and silver. 

Single-comb black, rose-comb black, 
and single-comb white. 

White-faced black. 



White, silver gray, and colored. 

Rose comb. 

Single-comb buff, single-comb black, 

and single-comb white. 
White-crested black, bearded 

golden, bearded silver, bearded 

white, buff laced, nonbearded 

golden, nonbearded silver, and 

nonbearded white. 
Golden spangled, silver spangled, 

golden pencilled, silver pencilled, 

white, and black. 
Mottled. 
Black. 
Black. 

Black-breasted red, brown-red. 
golden duckwing, silver duck- 
wing, birchen, red pyle, white, 
and black. 

Black-breasted red, brown-red, 
golden duckwing, silver duck- 
wing, birchen, red pyle, white, 
and black. 

Dark, white, and white-laced reds. 

Black. 

Black-breasted red. 

Black-breasted red. 

Golden and silver. 
White and black. 
White. 

Light and dark. 

Buff, partridge, white, and black. 
Black-tailed, white and black. 
Bearded white, buff-laced, and non- 
bearded. 
White. 
White. 
Any color. 



Classes 12, 13, and 14 are omitted here, as they include ducks 
and geese, which are not considered in this volume. All students 
of poultry husbandry should secure a copy of the " American 
Standard of Perfection " and become thoroughly familiar with the 
details and requirements of the breeds as outlined. 



OS 



iSKiliiilJa W JfUUJLIJttX 




STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 



69 



Terms Explained. — It should be noted in the above outline 
and description given later that the three terms, class, breed, and 
variety, are used with distinctive meanings. 

Class is used to include the larger groups of birds. The classes 
relate to their place of origin or their natural habitat, as, for in- 
stance, American class, English class, French class. 

Breed is used almost entirely to designate body shape and 
form. For instance, in the American class are the Plymouth Rock, 
Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red, each one a distinct breed and 
each one having distinctive body shape or type. The Plymouth 




Fig. 40. — Buff Orpington pair, a popular variety of this English breed. (Photo by Suns- 
wick Poultry Farm.) 

Rocks' bodies are represented by oval curves, the Wyandottes' 
by circular curves, and the Rhode Island Reds' by rectangles. 
This difference can easily be distinguished from the accompanying 
sketches (Fig. 39). 

" Breed " is also used to designate both shape and variety color, 
yet in such cases the proper distinction has been partially over- 
looked. This error is especially pronounced in the Orpington 
breed; there the tendency has been to create new varieties at a 
sacrifice of shape, it being quite common to find Buff Orping- 
tons with a buff color, but representing anything but the 
Orpington shape (Fig. 40). Another example is among White 



70 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



Wyandottes. There are many white, rose-comb birds commonly 
called Wyandottes which possess Plymouth Rock shape. The 
aim should be to eliminate this fallacy as much as possible 
and breed true to body shape and breed type, as well as to 
variety color. 

The standard weights of the breeds are given in Table III. 



Table III. — Standard Weights. 



Class. 



Cocks. Hens. Cockerels. Pullets. 



American class: 

Plymouth Rocks 

Wyandottes 

Javas 

Dominiques 

Rhode Island Reds. . . . 

Buckeyes 

Asiatic class: 

Brahmas 

Cochins 

Langshans 

Mediterranean class: 

Minorcas 

Spanish 

Blue Andalusians 

English class: 

Dorkings 

Redcaps 

Orpingtons 

French class: 

Houdans 

Crevecceurs 

La Fleche 

Oriental class: 

Cornish 

Malays 

Malay Bantams 

Game Bantam class: 

Game Bantams 

Ornamental Bantam class 

Sebrights 

Rose Comb 

Booted 

Brahma 

Cochin 

Japanese 

Polish 



Pounds. 
$A 

8V 2 

9A 

7 

8V 2 

9 

12 
11 

$A 

9 

8 
6 

7A 
7V 2 
10 

7V 2 
8 

sa 

9 
9 

Ounces. 

26 

22 

26 
26 
26 
30 
30 
26 
26 



Pou7ids. 

7A 

6A 

7V 2 

5 

6A 

6 

W* 
9A 
7V 2 

7V 2 
$A 
5 



SA 

7 
7V 2 

7 
7 

Ounces. 
24 

20 

22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
22 
22 



Pounds. 



7V 2 



6 
7V 2 



10 
9 



7Y 2 
SA 

5 

6A 

6 

SA 
6A 

7 
7A 



7 

Ounces. 

24 

20 

22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
22 
22 



Pounds. 

6 

5A 
QA 
4 

5 
5 



7 

$A 

SA 
5A 
4 

5 

5 

7 
5A 

6 

6M 

6 
5 

Ounces. 

22 

18 

20 
20 
20 
24 
24 
20 
20 



STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 71 

» 

Breeds not mentioned, such as Leghorns, Anconas, Hamburgs, 
Games, and others, have no " standard " weights. 

Variety refers chiefly to color pattern of plumage. For instance, 
there are six varieties of Plymouth Rocks, and all should be ex- 
actly the same shape, the only difference being in the color of the 
plumage. So with Wyandottes; there are eight distinct color 
varieties. In some cases, however, variety is used to designate the 
character of comb, the color being the same. 

Type means the form and function of the body, or plan of 
structure, as related to the formation of some special product; for 
example, egg type or meat type. The term is used later in this 
chapter. 

Description of Breeds. — 1. The American class includes 
the breeds of poultry which have originated in America and 
which were created and improved with the idea of dual-purpose 
achievement. They constitute the great mass of poultry kept on 
American farms and are the popular general-purpose fowls of 
America. They average in weight from five pounds in the case 
of immature females to about ten pounds for the mature male bird. 

The Barred Plymouth Rock is undoubtedly the leading breed 
in popularity, — more are grown each year than any other variety. 
This variety is the result of crossing a male Dominique and female 
Java. The idea was to develop the best possible utility bird. 

The Wyandottes were originated in New York State, early in 
1868, and probably contain intermingled blood of Hamburg, 
Cochin, and Dark Brahma. They are one of the strongest Ameri- 
can breeds, and are very popular in exhibitions and on general farms. 

The Rhode Island Red is a breed of more recent origin. There 
was probably a great intermingling of different breeds in its make- 
up. Birds of this breed were developed largely in southern New 
England, but have become very popular for farm purposes in many 
sections of the country. 

2. The Asiatic Class. — Three distinct breeds are here included. 
Each is noted for its large size, and all the varieties are meat- 
producing fowls. This class includes the Brahma, which is the 
largest of all domestic fowls, often attaining a weight of from twelve 
to thirteen pounds. They have their origin in types and varieties 
imported from Asia, as the class name implies. 

The Brahmas were originated in New England, and contain 
the blood from what was then known as the Gray Chittagong and 
the Brahmaputra (Fig. 41). 



72 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



The Cochin originated in England, about the time that the 
Brahma was creating so much interest in America. It was devel- 
oped from what was known as 
the Shanghai fowl, which probably 
came in the beginning from a port 
in China by that name. 

The Langshans were developed 
largely in England; their early 
history is somewhat obscure, and 
there is some dispute as to their 
ancestry. 

3. The Mediterranean Class. — 
This group of birds had their ori- 
gin on the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. The five families or 
breeds of this class are recognized 
as the world's best egg producers, 
and they have probably become 
more generally distributed through- 
out the world than any other group. 

The Leghorns (Fig. 42) are by far the most popular breed of 




Fig. 41. — Light Brahma hen, one of the 
most popular of heavy fowls. This is a 
good example of the pea comb. 




Fia. 42. — Buff Leghorns. The carriage shown here is characteristic of th< bt I 



STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 73 

this class, and are rapidly gaining in numbers and distribution in 
America, as they are considered the most economic egg producers 
in sections where the white-shelled eggs are preferred. These 
birds were imported to this country in 1850 from Leghorn, Italy. 
Since then they have been slowly developed until they have as- 
sumed the characteristics as we know them to-day. 

The Minorcas originally came from the Island of Minorca, off 
the coast of Spain. Early in their development they were known 
as the Red-faced Spanish. The original Minorcas, when imported 
to this country, were much smaller and not nearly so productive 
as are the representatives to-day. The best specimens rank second 
to the Leghorn in the Mediterranean class as egg producers. 

The White-faced Black Spanish is one of the oldest breeds in 
existence. They were originally called the Black Spanish fowls. 
The large white face has been produced after many years of selected 
breeding for this one feature alone. This breeding has resulted in 
the lowering of other qualities, so that the breed is not so popular 
nor so profitable for market purposes as it might be. 

The Blue Andalusian is a breed almost as old as history itself. 
The ancestry is not known. Birds of this type are constantly 
being produced and have been produced throughout the world as 
the result of crossing black and white varieties of the same breed. 
Both England and Canada have been quite extensive breeders of. 
pure and high-grade Andalusians. The Andalusian is midway 
between a Leghorn and Minorca in size and shape. Owing to the 
color of the skin and other characteristics, they have not attained 
any great degree of popularity in the United States. 

The original home of Anconas was probably Italy, where they 
are now quite abundant. They require care and attention to per- 
fect their color markings, and are bred by the true fancier. The 
general characteristics of Anconas are very similar to Leghorns. 
It is owing to this fact that many claim Leghorns as the true an- 
cestors of Anconas (Fig. 43). As a breed they have very little 
economic value, since there are many others which are far superior 
to them for both eggs and meat. 

4. The English class is represented by three breeds, — Dorkings, 
Red Caps, and Orpingtons. 

The oldest of these, in fact one of the oldest of all breeds, is 
the Dorking. One peculiar characteristic is the fifth toe, which 
was early mentioned in agricultural literature. The Dorkings are 
supposed to have been imported from England by the Romans. 



74 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 




Fig. 43. — A pair of Mottled Anconas — typical of the Mediterranean class. (Photo from 
Urban Farm, Buffalo, N. Y.) 




Fig. 44. — A White Orpington pair — an English general-purpose type. (Photo from Harmony 
Park, Scotch Plains, N. J.) 



STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 



75 



The White Dorking is probably the oldest variety of this breed,while 
the Silver Gray variety is one of the most popular. In America 
the Dorkings have not attained any great degree of popularity, 
due, no doubt, to the fact that other breeds are considered better. 

The Red Caps are well known to fanciers. They have many 
useful qualities, but are not practically considered among the 
breeds in America. 

The Orpington has recently come to be one of the most promis- 
ing breeds of poultry (Fig. 44). The honor of originating this 
breed belongs to Mr. William Cook, late of England. The direct 
object in its make-up was to 
secure a typical English breed 
with general-purpose qualities 
to take the place in England 
which is occupied in this coun- 
try by the Plymouth Rock and 
the Wyandotte. The English 
requirements call for white 
beak, shanks, and flesh. In 
America these points are not 
preferred. The Orpingtons 
are gaining rapidly in popu- 
larity among American fan- 
ciers, and if the present wave 
of popularity continues they 
will undoubtedly find a place 
among the leading general- 
purpose breeds (Fig. 45). 

5. The Polish class includes 
only one breed, with many varieties. These are admired for their 
fancy qualities. They have peculiar formations of the skull and 
nostrils, and are distinctive in having a V-shaped comb. The 
Polish fowls were originally called Polanders, from the fact that 
they were supposed to have originated in Poland. English fan- 
ciers have done much toward improving this breed. The Canadian 
poultrymen have also taken considerable interest in the breed and 
in its improvement. One notable feature which fanciers have 
developed is the size of the crest. This was attained by the 
breeding of birds which have relatively large knobs on the head, 
for it was found that the size of the crest and the knob have 
a direct relation to each other. 




Fig. 45. — Black Orpington hen, represent- 
ing the ideal Orpington type, not yet attained 
in any other than the black variety. (Photo 
from Sunswick Poultry Farm.) 



76 BREEDS OF POULTRY 

6. The Hamburg s are of one breed represented by six varieties. 
They are noted for their extremely fancy plumage and peculiar 
carriage. They are supposed to have been originally imported 
from Hamburg, and hence are often spoken of as " Dutch " breed. 
They were probably developed in England by crossing them with 
other varieties with fancy plumage for show purposes. These 
birds have not attained any great degree of popularity in America. 

7. The French breeds are represented in America by only the 
Houdan, Crevecceur, and La Fleche. There is another breed very 
popular in France, namely, the Faverolle. All these breeds are 
raised very extensively in France, and are used largely for table 
poultry. There is said to be Polish blood in their make-up. 

The La Fleche most nearly corresponds to our egg type of 
birds. The other three French breeds are heavier meat breeds, 
and correspond more or less to the Asiatic type, having a peculiar 
pinkish-white skin and flesh. France is noted for its extensive 
market-poultry industry. The four breeds mentioned have not 
attained any great degree of popularity in America, as they are 
not considered superior to the Asiatic breeds for meat purposes. 

8. Games and Game Bantams. — The game fowl represents a 
distinct type in regard to shape. This type has been in existence 
as long as poultry has been known. Legends say that game fowls 
were in existence in India previous to the existence of any authentic 
record. There are eight well-defined varieties, all of which are 
fairly uniform as to shape. The type bred in America is very 
similar to that bred in England. This group of birds is character- 
ized by a very erect carriage, the result of years of careful selection 
and mating with the original Pit Game type. Their commercial 
possibilities are very limited; therefore they are excluded from 
the average poultry farm. Each of the varieties of Game Bantams 
has the identical type of the standard-size varieties, but is much 
smaller. 

9. The Orientals. — The four breeds of birds in this class are 
the Cornish, Sumatra, Malay, and Malay Bantam, all of which 
are of the game type. Their main difference in appearance from 
the ordinary game type is a much heavier body, short neck, and 
strong shanks. The Sumatra and Malay are said to have originated 
in Oriental countries. It is said that the Cornish fowl, as we know 
it to-day, originated in Cornwall, England, as a result of crossing 
the Black-breasted Red Game upon Aseel birds imported from 
India; and later Sumatra blood was introduced. The effect of this 



STANDARD CLASSIFICATION 



77 



intermingling is very noticeable in the Cornish Games of to-day. 
They are often spoken of as " Cornish Indian Games." 

■10. Ornamental Bantams. — This class is represented by five 
breeds and many varieties. They are entirely ornamental, and 
are bred for pleasure and fancy. They do, however, possess some 
desirable poultry qualities. Many of them are egg layers, and 
the Cochin Bantam hens are profitable when used to hatch the 
eggs of pheasants and other small fowls. 

In this group the Brahma and the Cochin Bantams are the 
exact image of the standard-size birds of the same name. 

The Rose-comb Bantams are prototypes of the Hamburgs. 

Sebright Bantams are said to have originated in England after 
a great many years of careful breeding, and they are one of the 
most remarkable poultry 
breeds in the points of sex 
similarity and diminutive 
size. 

The Polish Bantams 
closely resemble the large 
Polish breed. 

The Japanese Bantams 
are curiosities from the fact 
that they have exceedingly 
short legs in proportion to 
size of body. The male bird 
is odd in having sword- 
shaped sickles, carried ver- 
tically (Fig. 46). 

11. Miscellaneous. — 
Three breeds which cannot well be placed in any other class are 
included here. It may be said they are freaks in certain character- 
istics. The Silkies derived their name from the peculiar formation 
of their plumage. Their feathers are webless and of a silky texture. 
This characteristic makes the breed interesting, since this feature 
is not possessed by any other standard variety. The face is purple 
and prominent, the back broad, legs short and feathered, and the 
body profusely feathered. Silkies are kept in this country more 
for fancy stock than for any utility value which they possess. 

The Sultans are less common than the Silkies. They have 
coarse muff and beard, vulture-like hock, and very abundant 
shank and toe feathering. 




Fig. 46. — Black-tailed White Japanese Bantams 
— remarkable for their short legs. (Photo by 
Urban Farms, Buffalo, N. Y.) 



78 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



The Frizzles are named from the fact that the feathers have a 
tendency to curl upward at the outer end. This curling is especially 
noticeable in the hackle, giving the birds a general fluffy appearance 
as though covered with curls. 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION. 

The utility classification, or commercial classification, is of 
direct practical importance because it takes into consideration the 
economic and commercial value of the different breeds. It is of 
direct importance to the farm poultry breeder as well as the large 

commercial poultry plant. It 
is based upon the points which 
are conducive to the production 
of eggs and meat. At best, a 
classification of this kind is 
largely arbitrary. The useful 
points of a number of popular 
breeds will be considered. 

Four economic types include 
all breeds having any marked 
degree of use to man: (1) Egg 
breeds; (2) meat breeds; (3) 
general-purpose breeds; and 
(4) fancy breeds. Only the 
more popular breeds are here 
classified. 

Egg Breeds. — Included in 
this group are small or medium 
fowls which have a pronounced 
tendency toward egg production. They vary slightly in size and 
form, but are somewhat of a uniform type. They differ materially 
from birds of the other types mentioned, as will be shown. They 
are possessed of a neat, trim carriage, which gives them an active 
and light appearance. They are relatively long-legged, the legs 
being free from feathers, and it is the aim of breeders to keep down 
the weight of birds in this class — from three to eight pounds. The 
aim is not to sacrifice egg production for increased body growth. 
The Leghorns, Minorcas, Hamburgs, Anconas, Andalusians, 
Spanish, and Houdans are the most distinctive breeds of this class. 
The Leghorns and Minorcas are far in the lead in America (Fig. 
47). The Campine breed (Fig. 48), of French origin, is a good 
layer of large, white eggs. 




Fig. 47. — Ideal egg shape, as shown in the 
Leghorn breed. 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 



79 



Disposition. — The true egg producers are naturally light, active, 
easily frightened, and of a more nervous disposition than any of 
the other types. It is therefore hard to enclose them. They do 
better on an extended range, during the growing period, where 
they can take necessary exercise. This seems essential to their 
proper development. If care is used in handling them when young, 
the tendency to fly can be partially overcome. Owing to their 
temperament, it is necessary when caring for egg breeds to handle 




Fig. 48.- 



-A Campine pair, showing the characteristic narrow white and wide dark bars, 
with light hackle. (Photo by M. R. Jacobus.) 



them carefully and quietly so as not to intensify the habit of flight. 
It rests largely with the feeder and the one who cares for the birds 
to keep them gentle. Their temperament need not restrict their 
use, as it can be governed by thought and care. In practice it has 
been found best to provide them with one of two conditions, — 
either keep them in close confinement, housing the entire flock 
throughout the year, or give them unlimited range. Restricted 
range seems to develop restlessness and the habit of flight. 

Mature Early. — The egg breeds are early in maturing, and 
both sexes usually attain the attitude and distinctive features 
of the adults at an early age. The male Leghorn grows tail 
feathers, heavy comb, and is fully feathered at the age of nine 
to ten weeks. As the birds become completely feathered they are 



80 BREEDS OF POULTRY 

better able to stand bad weather under a great variety of condi- 
tions. Previous to this a rapid feather growth takes place, which 
causes a heavy strain on the system of the growing chick. This 
requires careful handling up to twelve weeks of age. Undoubtedly 
early feather growth is the cause of many deaths of Leghorn chicks. 
Leghorn pullets will be mature and begin laying eggs when from 
four to five months of age, under favorable conditions; six months 
is perhaps a better age for laying to begin. 

Poor Sitters. — Egg breeds are by nature poor sitters and poor 
mothers, due largely to their nervous temperament and disposition 
to be always on the move. This is true of the entire Mediterranean 
class. Breeders have tried for many years to improve the sitting 
quality in this type of bird, with little success. The tendency has 
been to develop the egg-laying propensities of the hens and thus 
obliterate the mother instinct. They become more and more like 
mere egg machines. 

There are cases of Leghorns making good sitters and mothers. 
Such hens are the exception rather than the rule. In many in- 
stances the desire to sit may be very pronounced at the beginning 
of the spring brooding period, but does not last for many days. 
The breeder using such hens will often find a nest of eggs chilled 
and deserted, due to the fickleness of individuals of this type. 
Exclusive egg farms either use artificial methods of incubation or 
make use of broody hens of some other breed. 

Foraging Abilities. — Birds of the egg type are noted for their 
foraging abilities. Owing to their active disposition and their 
desire to roam, they will go a long way from the roosting quarters 
in search of feed. Egg breeds can be kept much more cheaply 
than the heavier breeds, as they will obtain a great deal more 
natural feed on their foraging expeditions. When it is impossible 
to give them free range, it is necessary to provide exercise in some 
other form. This can best be done by inducing the birds to scratch 
in search of grain scattered in deep litter. When proper attention 
is given to exercise, this type of bird thrives very well, in spite of 
close confinement. On large egg plants, the most economical 
method of keeping this type of hens during the summer is on free 
range. They get a large amount of green feed and secure a great 
many grubs and other insects which to some extent take the place 
of meat scrap. 

Susceptible to Cold. — The egg breeds have large combs and 
wattles and are enveloped by close plumage, which tend to make 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 



81 



them susceptible to cold. In practice, however, it has been found 
that the birds do not suffer severely if the house is kept well ven- 
tilated. An abundance of fresh air and oxygen keeps up the circu- 
lation of the blood and removes surplus moisture. The presence 
of moist air is very detrimental and tends to produce frozen combs 
in winter. Frozen combs and wattles must be avoided, as they 
impair the physical condition of the birds, and greatly reduce, for 
a time at least, the egg-laying capacity, due to the impaired vitality. 
The close feathering does not offer the protection against cold 
that is found in the meat breeds or loosely feathered birds. A 
thick growth of feathers offers better protection. 




Fig. 49. — Single-comb White Leghorns, the most popular of the egg breeds. (Photo by 
International Correspondence Schools.) 

A reason which is advanced for the breeding of rose-comb birds 
is the supposed hardiness of such combs. In practice, the wattles 
and the spikes of the rose combs are often frozen. It has been 
impossible to breed as high a producing strain of rose-comb birds 
as of single-comb birds. The Leghorns, in spite of the danger of 
suffering from cold, have proved to be one of the hardiest breeds 
kept in this country. For winter egg production, they have proved 
their worth in practically all sections. When provided with proper 
houses and the right kind of feed, they are well able to withstand 
the winters. 

Leghorns outclass all others in popularity for egg-producing 

6 



82 BREEDS OF POULTRY 

purposes. They lay extremely large white-shelled eggs which top 
the market at the best prices. The birds are small in size and are 
not suitable for table purposes (Fig. 49). Where they are kept, 
little attention is devoted to the production of meat; the revenues 
from birds sold for this purpose are comparatively small. They 




Fig. 50. — Single-comb Black Minorca pair, a breed noted for large eggs with white shells. 

lay so many eggs that the sales for meat can be eliminated. Re- 
cords show individuals that have produced more than two hun- 
dred eggs per year, and in rare instances large flocks have averaged 
as high as this. Leghorns, owing to their small size, are light 
eaters, both during their growth and after maturity. All things 
considered, it costs less for feed to produce eggs with Leghorns 
than with any other breed. The Brown Leghorns have become 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 



83 



quite popular, but they do not equal the white variety. Solid- 
colored birds, as the White Leghorns, are more satisfactory to the 
poultryman, as they are easier to breed true to color. The pri- 
mary object, in this case, is the production of eggs, and he does 
not wish to consider the fancy points of color plumage. 

Minorcas rank second to Leghorns in egg production (Fig. 50) . 
They are the heaviest breed in the Mediterranean class, but in 
appearance resemble the Leghorns. They have larger combs and 
wattles, increasing the danger 
of freezing. They lay extreme- 
ly large, white eggs, the largest 
of any standard breed kept 
for egg production. The shells 
are thin and there is danger 
of breakage during shipment. 
The size of the eggs is in their 
favor, but a special type of 
carton or filler is required to 
ship them. For a high-class 
retail trade the large, ivory- 
white eggs always bring a pre- 
mium. This breed has never 
become so popular in America 
as the Leghorns, owing per- 
haps to the fact that the shanks 
have a dark-blue color. They 
have meaty bodies, but, owing 
to the color of the skin and 
flesh, they are not demanded 
by the general trade. Minor- 
cas are much harder to raise to maturity than Leghorns, having 
less vitality. There are fewer raised, and hence less selection for 
vigor and vitality is practised. 

The other egg breeds mentioned are of no great economic 
importance in America, and will not be discussed in detail here. 

Meat Breeds. — The second type or group of birds to consider 
from the economic standpoint are those adapted for meat pur- 
poses. These birds are of good size, compactly built, and are 
noted for quality and quantity of flesh. Birds of the Asiatic group 
undoubtedly fulfil these requirements best. In every respect large 
birds are preferred, as there is less waste in bone and offal, and 




Fig. 51. — Ideal shape of the meat type, as shown 
in the Brahma. 



84 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



large fowls can be served on the table to better advantage than 
small ones (Fig. 51). 

Brahmas, Cochins (Fig. 52), and Langshans represent the meat 
type in the highest degree. They are larger and blockier than the 
egg breeds; and have good depth and breadth of body, with very 
full breast. The legs have the appearance of being very short; 
but this is an illusion, due to the extreme fulness of the feathers. 
A large, soft-meated bird with an abundance of flesh and plumage 
is the most highly prized. The breeds may be subdivided accord- 




Fig. 52. — Buff Cochins, one of the heaviest of the meat breeds. 



ing to the character and quality of meat. Some are suited for 
broilers, others for roasters, and others for capons. 

Many of the general-purpose breeds are used extensively for 
meat purposes, but they are not strictly included in the meat 
class, as they do not represent the greatest quality or quantity 
which it is possible to attain. 

Disposition. — They are slow in movement and are not easily 
frightened. If properly handled when young, they become very 
gentle, and do not dislike handling and attention as do the egg 
breeds. The meat breeds have a lazy disposition, and require 
more care in feeding than the lighter breeds. 

Mature Late. — The meat breeds are very slow in maturing, 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 85 

not assuming the adult features very young. They are slow in 
feathering and are always slow growers. It takes from six to 
eight months or longer to mature a pullet to laying condition. 
The males do not assume or attain the highest degree of perfection 
for meat until from seven to ten months of age. Owing to their 
slow development and slow feathering, they are rather hard to 
raise during the first four months. Rainy weather and even damp, 
unsettled weather seem to chill the young chicks, as they have 
very little, if any, protection in the form of feathers. Although 
growth takes place very late in the development of the birds, yet 
the meat remains soft, so that at twelve months of age the flesh 
may be as tender as it is at five or six months in the lighter breeds. 
Later it becomes very fibrous. 

Persistent Sitters. — They are naturally very persistent sitters 
and good mothers; but, owing to their large size, feathered shanks, 
and clumsy movements, they are apt to break the eggs or crush 
the chicks in the nest. As there are several general-purpose breeds 
which make as good or better sitters, hens of the meat breeds are 
less used for that purpose. The Bantam meat breeds make very 
good mothers, and are often used for that purpose. 

Poor Foragers. — The heavy meat fowls are not, by nature, 
adapted to seeking their own feed, and will not roam a great 
distance from the roosting quarters in search of it. They are 
easily enclosed, a three-foot fence being sufficient in most cases. 
They are adapted to the small farm or city lot, where they are 
confined in small areas. They are not persistent scratchers, and 
can be given the freedom of a city lot without danger of seriously 
disfiguring it. 

Extreme Hardiness. — Fowls of the meat breeds are heavily 
feathered, have small combs and wattles, and protected shanks; 
this makes them well suited to withstand extremely low tempera- 
tures. This fact should not encourage breeders to take undue 
risk when providing winter quarters. No birds, regardless of their 
make-up, will thrive in a house poorly ventilated or having an 
excess of moisture. The Brahma is especially well protected 
from the cold, owing to the small wattles and pea comb. The 
Langshan (Fig. 53), on the other hand, has a rather large comb 
and suffers more in this respect under adverse conditions. 

Egg- Laying. — This group is not noted for its egg-laying pro- 
pensities, being the lowest of any group. General-purpose breeds 
surpass them in this respect. It is always true in animal breeding 



86 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



that usefulness in an animal attains its highest perfection in one 
direction only. When the animal shows a marked advance along 
one line, it is at the expense of some other feature. So there has 
not been a tendency to develop, to any great extent, the egg- 
laying properties of the meat breeds. The Light Brahma has, 
however, been considered a good layer, considering its size and 
weight. Modern poultrymen, keeping the heavy breeds, consider 




Fig. 53. — Black Langshan pair, a meat breed noted for great height. 
Farms, Buffalo, N. Y.) 



(Photo by Urban 



them useful for turning out flesh of superior quality. They get 
eggs enough from them to perpetuate the breed and to supply 
enough young for market purposes. 

General-Purpose Breeds. — A number of breeds have been 
developed and bred for two purposes, namely, the production of 
both meat and eggs. Birds of this type are most generally kept 
on American farms and are credited with the great mass of poultry 
and egg products sent to market. The majority of farmers, keep- 
ing small flocks, desire a type which can furnish the home table 
and market with both eggs and meat. After the fowls have passed 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 



87 



their usefulness as egg producers they bring considerable revenue 
when sold for meat. The males of this class make the best market 
broilers; and, as the surplus must be disposed of, they bring good 
prices when marketed as broilers. Their strong constitution is one 
factor in making them popular. 

Fowls of this class are good layers, and some breeds of the 
group are good winter layers. In fact, some strains have been 
so developed that they nearly equal, and in some instances excel, 
the Leghorns. They have been developed for winter eggs because 
eggs produced at that season bring higher prices than those 
produced at any other time. 
Another reason why this type 
is so popular is that the hens 
become broody and make 
good natural incubators and 
are good mothers. On the 
average farm it is not prof- 
itable, owing to the small 
number of chicks hatched, 
to use artificial incubators; 
hence this quality is of great 
importance. Fowls of the 
general-purpose type may be 
said to hold a medium place 
in nearly all respects between 
the egg and meat types, in 
some degree combining the 
good qualities of each (Figs. 
54 and 55). 

Disposition. — Birds of the 
general-purpose breeds are gentle, not easily frightened, and of a 
quiet disposition. They are much more easily confined than the 
egg breeds, since they are heavier and it is much harder for them 
to fly over a given height of fence. A fence six feet high is usually 
sufficient to turn birds of this group, except in cases where the habit 
of flight is unusually well developed. They are of medium size, 
have blocky, compact bodies and rather short legs. The blocky 
appearance is more pronounced than in nearly all other breeds. 

Maturity. — Chicks of this type mature quicker, passing through 
the delicate stages more rapidly and stronger, than those of the 
meat type. They grow more quickly but do not take on mature 




Fig. 54, 



Ideal general-purpose shape, as shown 
in the Plymouth Rock breed. 



88 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 



features as early as chicks of the egg breeds. They are quick in 
maturing, the pullets laying at from five to six months. A good 
time for hatching is April, as this brings them to maturity at about 
the right time in the fall. They reach the market broiler age at 
about ten to fifteen weeks, depending upon the size and type of 




Fig. 55. — Comparison of the three utility types of poultry. 



broiler desired; and they may prove very profitable when disposed 
of in season at this early age. 

Good Sitters. — They are not as persistent sitters as hens of the 
meat breeds, yet they will make much better sitters and mothers. 
They are lighter in weight and do not have feathered shanks. 
Yearlings and two-year-old hens are good for this purpose. One 
objection to certain breeds of this group, from the egg-production 
standpoint, is the large number of broody hens during the spring; 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 89 

this feature lowers the total yield of eggs. The Rhode Island Reds 
are often objected to for this reason. 

Good Foragers. — These birds do not roam as far as those of the 
lighter breeds, yet they are very good foragers, and will seek out a 
living if given an opportunity to do so. The young of this group, 
during their development, will cover an extensive range in search 
of green feed and insects, and will make a very satisfactory growth 
with very little supplemental feed. It is the best practice, from the 
standpoint of a quick and economic growth, to check this habit by 
supplying considerable feed in the vicinity of their quarters. 

Hardiness. — The general-purpose breeds are protected from 
cold nearly as well as the meat breeds, having loose, fluffy plumage, 
medium-sized combs and wattles, and compact bodies. They are 
thus able to withstand severe weather. They are much better 
protected than the egg breeds, and will often lay better during 
the winter months, when the quarters are not the most favorable. 

The most 'prominent representatives of this group are the 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, 
Javas, Dominiques, Dorkings, and sometimes Cornish Indian 
Games. The four mentioned first are by far the most popular in 
America at the present time, their popularity being approximately 
in the order named. The Orpingtons are gaining rapidly, and it 
is probable that they may surpass the Rhode Island Reds. The 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Rhode Island Reds have 
bright-yellow skin, shanks, and beak, which is a desired asset in 
market poultry. The Orpingtons have white shanks and beak. 
This color tends to work against them as market poultry. 

It cannot be said that any one of these four breeds is better 
than the others in all respects. They all have desirable points and, 
in fact, are very similar in many respects. There is often a greater 
difference between the strains of the same breed than there is 
between the breeds themselves. In selecting a breed the best plan 
is to pick out the one which appeals to the poultryman's ideal, 
and then, by breeding and selection, develop this strain to be the 
best one of the breed. 

Plymouth Rocks are undoubtedly the leaders of these four 
breeds, the barred variety being the most popular (Fig. 56 and 
57). These fowls resemble the meat breeds in size and the Leg- 
horns in egg production. The flesh is of fine quality; they are 
blocky fowls, having a rather long bod} r , plump and well propor- 
tioned. The laying qualities of the Plymouth Rocks have been 



90 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 




Fig. 56. — The most popular farm breed of poultry — Barred Plymouth Rock pair. (Photo 
from Grove Hill Poultry Yards, Waltham, Mass.) 




Fig. 57. — White Plymouth Hock pair. (Photo by Urban Farms, Buffalo, N. Y.) 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 91 

well developed. There are many reliable records of approximately 
two hundred and fifty eggs per hen from well-bred birds. In their 
first year the Plymouth Rocks make good winter layers, better in 
some cases than the so-called egg breeds. When confined they also 
do well. There is probably no other breed better adapted to the 
varying conditions of environment, — certainly none that combines 
in one type so many desirable qualities. Some poultrymen prefer 
the White Plymouth Rocks for market poultry, as they appear 
better when dressed. The white pin-feathers are less showy after 




Fig. 58. — An excellent general-purpose breed — White Wyandotte pair. (Photo from Onlya 
Farm, Florham Park, N. J.) 

dressing. There is practically no difference between the varieties 
of this breed in other respects. 

The Wyandottes (Figs. 58 and 59) are rapidly gaining in popu- 
larity, and probably rank second to the Plymouth Rocks. The 
breed is newer, having been recognized since 1883. They are a 
little smaller in size, with blockier, deeper body than the Plymouth 
Rocks; and have rose combs. They have a neat and trim appear- 
ance, and a full plump breast, with an abundance of white meat, 
which makes them useful as roasters. The good breast meat also 
makes them valuable for medium and large broilers. Records 
show that they are good layers. The white variety (Fig. 58) leads 
in popularity, as they are much easier to breed true to color. 



92 



BREEDS OF POULTRY 




Fig. 59. — Silver Wyandottes, noted for their beauty of plumage. 




Fig. 60. — Rhode Island Reds, a general-purpose breed gaining in popularity. (Photo 
by Dearborn and Sharp, Blairstown, N. J.) 



UTILITY CLASSIFICATION 93 

Rhode Island Reds are gaming rapidly in popularity, owing 
to the fact that they have proved to be good winter layers. They 
are very hardy, and are somewhat smaller than the Plymouth 
Rocks, having long, rectangular-shaped bodies (Fig. 60). Objec- 
tions to them are the tendency to vary in color of plumage and 
the variation in size and color of eggs. Compared with the Ply- 
mouth Rocks and Wyandottes, they are more active and mature 
considerably earlier, the pullets often reaching maturity in from 




Fig. 61. — The Cornish Game, a close-feathered, heavy-meated breed. (Photo by Oak 

Hill Poultry Yards.) 

four and one-half to five months. In sections where they have 
been introduced they are highly prized as farm fowls. 

Cornish Indian Games are sometimes included in the general- 
purpose group. By some they are classed with the meat breeds. 
They make very excellent table fowls when young. The hens are 
good sitters and excellent mothers, but not prolific layers (Fig. 61). 
Their distribution is on the decrease rather than on the increase. 

The Dorkings are an English breed which approaches the ideal 
of general-purpose qualities more than any other foreign breed. 
They are low, heavy-bodied birds and are very good layers. 



94 BREEDS OF POULTRY 

The Houdans are the most popular French breed of the general- 
purpose type. They are especially noted for heavy egg production, 
and furnish considerable meat of excellent quality. 

Fancy Breeds. — This group includes breeds and varieties 
kept and bred mainly for exhibition purposes. Most of these 
varieties carry peculiar and highly developed color patterns or 
plumage markings. Many fowls of this group are good layers. 
This quality might be intensified by selection and breeding. Many 
of them are capable of producing meat of most excellent quality. 
But there are special breeds better adapted to these purposes; 
and the fancy breeds have not attained wide distribution and are 
not common on farms. 

Those mentioned here are a few of the better known breeds 
representing this type. The varieties of the Polish breed have 
extremely fancy plumage, and a large crest on the top of the head. 
The exhibition and ornamental Games may also be grouped here. 
The Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles are birds which are bred primarily 
for exhibition purposes. Each is of interest because of some pecu- 
liar feature. The Bantams are bred for fancy or ornamental pur- 
poses, as they contain few, if any, utility qualities. 

In this connection it must be understood that all breeds of 
poultry, regardless of their utility value, are bred for fancy points. 
There is an increasing tendency to select the best utility breeds 
for this purpose. This is a step in the right direction. The Wyan- 
dottes, Orpingtons, and Plymouth Rocks are useful breeds which 
are taking more prominent places in the large shows; this is result- 
ing in better quality and more fixed type in these breeds. 

Fancy Qualities. — The term " fancy qualities " is often used 
to mean purely show features. It is also used to describe standard- 
bred poultry. The latter use is the more correct, since it includes 
all requirements to represent the height of perfection from every 
standpoint. Certain breeders opposed to the work of the American 
Poultry Association often use the term " fancy " in such a way as 
to leave a misunderstanding as to its exact meaning. All birds, 
if they are standard-bred, should possess the requirements of color 
and plumage markings for the best birds in their breed. In many 
cases to attain the intricate pattern and plumage requires careful 
selection and breeding. 

The term " standard-bred " covers the requirements of size, 
shape, and general conformation of body considered necessary or 
useful for market poultry, and the size and weight of body for egg 



REVIEW 95 

production. The present use of the term does not, however, con- 
sider form and conformation for egg production. 

As breed types become more fixed and a better understanding 
is obtained of the different breeds, the fancy and the utility re- 
quirements will more nearly coincide. 

REVIEW. 

1. Trace the origin of the domestic fowl. 

2. Give the zoological classification of birds, showing their place in the animal 

kingdom. 

3. Describe the class Aves, or birds. 

4. Name the two common classifications of poultry. 

5. How many different varieties are recognized in the standard classification? 

6. Enumerate the class numbers and names. 

7. Enumerate the breeds and their varieties in classes 1 to 4. 

8. What is the relative variation in weights in classes 1, 2, and 3? 

9. Upon what features is the standard classification based? 

10. Give the origin of the Plymouth Rock, Leghorn, and Light Brahma. 

11. What does the Bantam class represent? 

12. Give the meanings of class, breed, and variety. 

13. What is the basis of the utility classification? 

14. Give the four divisions of this classification. 

15. Discuss the egg breeds as to disposition, maturity, and hardiness. 

16. Name the two leading breeds in this group; compare them. 

17. Discuss the meat breeds as regards disposition, maturity, fecundity, and 

foraging abilities. 

18. Name the three leading meat breeds. 

19. What position do the general-purpose breeds fill in the utility classification? 

20. Discuss the general-purpose group with respect to disposition, sitting 

qualities, and hardiness. 

21. Name four leading breeds in this group. 

22. What are the most distinctive differences between the egg, meat, and 

general-purpose types? 

23. Discuss the so-called fancy group. 

References. — Breeds of Chickens, by James Dryden, Oregon Reading 
Course Lesson II; Standard Varieties of Chickens, by G. E. Howard, U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletin 51; A Test of Breeds, by F. E. Emery, North Carolina 
Bulletin 167. 

The Plymouth Rocks, Bulletin 29, The Wyandottes, Bulletin 31; American 
Breeds of Fowls, Report 1901: All by T. F. McGrew, U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry. 



CHAPTER V. 
SELECTION OF STOCK. 

The difference between success and failure in poultry keep- 
ing is often measured by the kind and quality of stock with which 
the start is made. Poorly bred birds of low vitality, which are 
not by nature adapted to the purpose in view, will not bring to 
the owner a profitable business. Great care should be exercised 
in the selection of the stock which is to be used as the source of 
many generations of future producers. 

Pure-bred Stock Best. — Pure-bred birds possess every advan- 
tage over mongrels, and failure to see and appreciate this fact 
often results in limited returns and possible failure. The following 
discussion of the possibilities of pure-bred poultry is given with 
the hope that it may impress upon all poultry farmers the wisdom 
of keeping pure-bred poultry. 

Pure-bred is a term applied to birds without the admixture of 
alien blood, — birds having pure blood lines through many years 
of ancestry. 

Advantages of Pure Breeds over Mongrels. — There is more 
reliability in their breeding. A pure-bred flock of some standard 
breed, having been purely bred for many generations, will repro- 
duce their kind with an unfailing certainty. There is no alien 
blood to bring out objectionable characteristics, and the breeder 
has a much greater opportunity of knowing what to expect from 
a given mating. This strong hereditary tendency of one type, due 
to many years of straight breeding, is not found in cross-breeds 
or mixed flocks. 

Larger Egg Production. — It is fair to state, and experience 
proves the assertion, that pure-bred poultry represented by the 
breeds which have been bred for egg production for many genera- 
tions, will lay a larger number of eggs than will birds of mixed 
breeding. This is due to the fact that the pure-bred breeds have 
been so bred that every tendency and every spark of surplus energy 
go toward this function. They have been bred so that every par- 
ticle of feed which is not utilized for maintenance and energy will 
naturally, due to the constitutional make-up of the bird, go toward 
the formation of eggs and not toward flesh growth. 
96 



ADVANTAGE OF PURE BREEDS OVER MONGRELS 



97 



Improved Quality of Meat. — The same assertion holds true with 
reference to the meat breeds, namely, that they have been bred 
true for generations, the idea being to breed into them the tendency 
to take all surplus feed and put it into flesh of a superior quality 
and texture. An example of the superiority of a meat breed, from 
the meat standpoint, over an egg breed, is shown by comparing 
the Leghorn and Plymouth Rock. In Leghorns the flesh is limited 
in amount, is much more tenacious, with less fatty tissue, and has 
a large percentage of connective tissue or fibrous bands (Fig. 62). 




Fig. 62. — Flesh of fowls, showing difference in texture in the egg and the meat breeds. 
Highly magnified. Left, White Leghorn; right, Barred Plymouth Rock. 



In the Plymouth Rocks, which represent the highest perfection 
in the pure-bred meat breeds, the flesh growth is noted for its 
abundance; it has considerable fatty tissue among the layers of 
lean meat, and a small amount of connective or fibrous tissue, 
giving it a finer texture and making it much more tender when 
cooked. The meat breeds are superior to mongrels as table fowls. 
Uniformity of Eggs. — Pure-bred birds show a greater uni- 
formity in the eggs produced, as to size, color, and shape. Each 
breed has its distinctive shape and color of egg, and, when there 
is an attempt to cross breeds, no dependence can be put upon the 
uniformity or character of the eggs produced. This is of special 
7 



98 SELECTION OF STOCK 

significance, for most markets desire eggs of some definite color, 
or at least that they shall be uniform in color. A medium large 
egg always brings a higher price. Whatever the type, they must 
be uniform in size and shape to command the best price. When 
breeds producing eggs of different color and size are crossed, the 
resulting product will be anything but uniform (Fig. 63). 

More Attractive Appearance.- — A flock of birds, whether ten or 
one thousand, uniform in size, shape, and color makes a much more 
pleasing appearance than a mixed lot. Furthermore, such a flock 
is a credit and an advertising factor to the breeder, for such a 
flock shows system in all the operations of breeding and leaves a 




Fig. 63. — Eggs, from pure breeds and from mongrels. Upper row, pure-bred White 
Leghorns, uniform in texture, color and shape; lower row, from cross of Leghorns and 
Plymouth Rocks, showing lack of uniformity. 

pleasing impression upon the prospective purchaser who may 
happen that way. Appearance in some cases may not have a 
direct commercial value, yet it has a secondary value in creating 
a name for the flock or strain. This is often underestimated. 

First Cost is but Slightly More. — Many pure-bred farm animals 
cost so much that the price is prohibitive for the average farmer. 
He is compelled to practise grading up. With fowls the cost of a 
few high-class, standard-bred birds is small, compared with their 
increased value. Every poultryman should begin right by select- 
ing a few, at least, of the best birds he can get, representing the 
type best adapted to his desired purpose. By hatching from these 
he can soon have a large flock at little extra expense over the cost 
of mongrels. 



ADVANTAGES OF PURE BREEDS OVER MONGRELS 99 

Cost of Keep no Greater. — It costs no more to keep a given num- 
ber of pure-bred birds than it does to keep the same number of 
mongrels. The requirements for maintenance are the same in 
each case. The requirements for production vary in different 
individuals, according to their amount of production, and vary in 
one class the same as in another. 

More Efficie?icy from Feeding. — There is more efficiency from 
the feed consumed when pure-breds are kept, for a breeder will 
naturally select a type which is adapted to his purpose, as eggs 
or meat. These pure-bred types have been developed and selected 
with a purpose in view. The nature of that particular type is to 
bend all its energy toward the product for which it is best suited. 
For example, greater efficiency is developed from feeding Leg- 
horns when eggs are desired than there would be from feeding 
Cochins or mongrels. On the other hand, there would be greater 
economy in feeding Brahmas when meat is the object than there 
would be in feeding Leghorns or mongrels. 

Demand for Breeding Purposes. — A poultryman who makes a 
specialty of one or more pure breeds and develops considerable 
ability to produce good birds of that breed finds an increasing 
demand for his stock and eggs for breeding purposes. The price 
received for them under such conditions is always considerably 
higher than for market purposes. Even when he makes a specialty 
of breeding for some commercial product, as market eggs or meat, 
he can always dispose of surplus cockerels, yearling hens, and a 
large number of eggs during the breeding season, at a greatly 
increased price. Any breeder who does not consider these oppor- 
tunities and take advantage of them is not getting everything out 
of the business that is in it. 

A Greater Selling Value. — Pure-bred poultry will always be 
found to have a greater selling value, whether it be for meat, 
eggs, or breeding purposes. The same care devoted to a standard- 
bred flock that is devoted to a mixed flock would result in a 
better quality of meat, in eggs more nearly uniform and a greater 
number of them, or in birds which have a relatively higher value 
as breeding stock. 

The standard-bred flock has come to the American farm to 
stay. It has been shown by many experiments in all parts of the 
country that for no purpose do crossed or mongrel birds produce 
a better result or return a greater revenue. One of the first and 
best assurances of success is to start with standard-bred birds. 



100 SELECTION OF STOCK 

Breed Adapted to Purpose. — The breed which best fits the 
market requirements for the product desired should be selected. 
The requirements of a market demanding a good-sized, white- 
shelled egg can best be met by keeping the Single-comb White 
Leghorn. Where a full-meated broiler is desired, such a breed as 
Wyandotte or Rhode Island Red will meet conditions to the best 
advantage. Where an extremely large bird for meat purposes is 
the aim, as for large roasters or capons, no better selection could 
be made than the Light Brahma. 

The breed, however, does not signify everything. Particular 
strains of the same breed often vary more than different breeds of 
similar general type. It is possible after the first selection of stock 
has been made to increase continuously the efficiency of the par- 
ticular strain in hand by careful mating and continuous rigid selec- 
tion. The first point for consideration should be the exact char- 
acter of product desired, and then it is a much simpler proposition 
to find a breed suited to that purpose. 

Manner of Acquiring Stock. — There are three general methods 
possible in securing foundation stock: (1) Purchasing eggs and 
hatching them; (2) buying the birds as adults or before they 
reach maturity; (3) buying day-old chicks. 

In the first plan there is always the danger of getting eggs from 
birds which do not come up to the standard set by the purchaser, 
and the danger of loss during incubation and brooding. There is 
expense and trouble in inspecting the stock from which the eggs 
came. It is never safe to buy either stock or eggs from flocks which 
the pui chaser has not personally seen or in some manner become 
acquainted with. 

The most satisfactory method, where time will permit, is to 
purchase a number of pure-bred birds of the type desired, usually 
in the fall, and mate them during the late winter, getting them 
into good breeding condition by spring, so that a maximum number 
of fertile eggs will be laid during the breeding season. In this way 
a large flock can be quickly raised from parents of known quality 
and breeding, the cost being much less than where all the eggs 
must be purchased at high prices. 

The second method takes a little more time, but in reality 
the actual breeding and improvement of the flock starts sooner, 
and definite improvement from breeding will be apparent more 
quickly. 

A third plan for starting in the poultry business is quite com- 



SELECTING LIVE BIRDS 101 

mon. If it is possible to purchase day-old chicks from a reliable 
breeder, this means can safely be employed to get an immediate 
start in the spring. It avoids the danger of loss in hatching, yet 
puts considerable responsibility upon the amateur during the 
brooding season. 

In starting by any of these methods, stock of only reliable 
breeders should be purchased, — breeders who are known for the 
quality of their birds. Where possible, the records of the parent 
stock purchased should be studied in regard to production and 
breeding. 

The poultry industry, in order to show continued improvement, 
must be developed through the increased quality of the flock. 
In order to bring this about, the individual bird must be made 
more and more the unit of study, rather than the total produc- 
tion of all the birds. In this way the poor producers and the 
barren females may be entirely eliminated, thus bringing about a 
higher average production for less birds kept. This can only be 
done by breeding each year from the best birds, and continued 
selection from hatching to maturity, keeping only the best for 
future breeders. 

Selecting Live Birds. — When selecting the birds which are to 
be the parents of future stock the following points should be con- 
sidered carefully: 

Health. — No bird should be purchased or used in the breeding 
pen which has ever had any poultry disease. Some diseases, such 
as white diarrhoea {Bacterium poloroum), are known to be in- 
herited. Others, such as tuberculosis, enteritis, and roup, weaken 
the individual constitutionally, and the offspring inherit lack of 
vitality. This makes them especially susceptible to take on these 
same diseases. Any affection which impairs the strength or vitality 
of a bird makes it lose just so much and impairs it for use as a 
breeder. It should be established beyond a doubt that all the 
birds selected have always been free from all forms of disease to 
which they are subject. 

Age. — In buying birds for breeding, yearlings are the most 
desirable, as they have at least two years before them during which 
their eggs can be profitably used for hatching purposes. Pullets 
should not be used for this purpose, as their eggs run smaller in 
size, and therefore hatch chicks which are smaller, and develop 
into smaller individuals at maturity. Birds of exceptional quality 
may be profitably kept for breeding purpose as long as they lay 



102 SELECTION OF STOCK 

a good number of fertile eggs which hatch into vigorous chicks; 
but the purchase of such individuals is rarely profitable. 

Size. — The stock purchased should be of good size for the breed. 
Lack of size is usually a sign of improper management during 
growth, of forced maturity due to late hatching, or of an inherited 
lack of vitality. Any one of these should stamp the bird as unsuit- 
able to be the parent of profitable layers or meat producers. The 
standard weight should be taken as a guide, and excess rather than 
under weight is to be preferred. When purchasing cockerels, an 
allowance must be made for age. With proper development they 
may make valuable birds in the breeding pen. 

Weight. — In the choosing of birds for meat purposes, the weight 
should be considered above size. Large, full-feathered birds may 
give the appearance of depth and height but show, when dressed, 
very little flesh development of a desirable character. In extremely 
old birds (three years or more) excessive weight should be avoided 
in the heavy breeds, as the tendency is for them to take on surplus 
fat in the nature of fatty deposits rather than an evenly distributed 
fat throughout the body. This makes them poor layers, with a 
low fertility and loss of vitality to the offspring. 

Shape. — The standard shape of the breed chosen should be 
studied and selection made accordingly, for by so doing the progeny 
will conform more closely to the type selected and more nearly 
fit the purpose desired. Only by having the flock uniform in shape 
can they be considered strictly standard bred. By constantly 
selecting toward one shape, a greater uniformity will be gained in 
appearance and character of meat produced. This is of importance 
when broilers or roasters are dressed and packed for fancy or high- 
class trade. 

Color. — The endeavor should be made to have the color of the 
birds selected as near the standard requirements as possible. It 
may not be the purpose of the breeder to exhibit his birds for 
fancy points, yet the added attractiveness and appearance of his 
flock will warrant a constant attempt to breed the birds true to 
color markings as well as size and shape. The idea in selecting 
birds should be to combine the qualities which will fit them for 
the particular purpose in view and at the same time show the 
effect of breeding and selection for color, thus combining the 
fancy and utility sides of poultry keeping in a harmonious and 
coordinate way. 

Vigor. — Strong, vigorous constitutions in both males and 



REVIEW 103 

females are of paramount importance, and should supersede all 
other considerations. They will impart vigor to their progeny. 
It is this characteristic which will maintain the vitality and pro- 
ductive power of future generations. Care in the selection of the 
foundation stock should be considered first. Without that, the 
best of management, good houses, and proper feed will avail little. 



REVIEW. 

1. Define the term pure bred. 

2. Give ten advantages of pure-bred birds over mongrels. 

3. Discuss each of these advantages. 

4. Discuss breed selection with reference to object desired. 

5. Name and give possibilities of three methods of acquiring stock. 

6. Enumerate seven points which should receive careful consideration when 

selecting live birds. 

7. Tell of the importance of proper care in the selection of foundation stock. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

Supplying poultry with suitable environment is one of the 
most essential features of poultry management. A suitable en- 
vironment means the right kind of house properly located. 
Many types of poultry houses are in use throughout the country, 
representing a great variety of ideas and theories. This diversity 
is largely due to the fact that amateurs start out in business with 




Fig. 64. 



-Antiquated type of poultry house, with no muslin in windows, 
ventilation and holds the moisture. 



Glass prevents 



ideas of their own, and incorporate these in their houses, whether 
they have been tested and found desirable or not. There are a 
few simple rules or principles which should be followed in the 
construction of the house, and there are a number of different 
types which furnish these requirements. There is no one best 
type, suitable under all conditions and for all sections of the country. 
Recent Changes. — There have been marked changes and rapid 
developments in the perfection of poultry houses. It was formerly 
considered necessary to have a perfectly tight house, double 
boarded, with single or double glass sash in the front (Fig. 64). 
This type of house served as a shelter for the birds, and theoreti- 
cally would keep them warm; yet in practice it has been found 
104 



ESSENTIAL FEATURES 



105 




that the closed, glass-front house was easily affected by changes of 
outside temperature and moisture, unless some adequate system 
of ventilation was provided. Such a house could not supply to 
the birds the abundance of fresh air which they need without 
causing a draft to blow directly upon them. 

It has been found that a house constructed on a plan entirely 
opposite the one just described is more efficient. All up-to-date 
poultry houses provide an abundance of fresh air during the night, 
to keep the birds in the best physical condition. This is being 
done almost entirely by the use of " muslin fronts." This feature 
is regarded as essential and 
is prevalent throughout the 
entire United States, from 
Oregon to Maine (Fig. 65). 

The type of poultry house 
selected should be adapted to 
the system in use: (1) The 
colony system requires, 
under general conditions, a 
house conforming to the size 
of the flock to be kept as a 
unit and single-pen construc- 
tion, with or without scratch- 
ing shed. (2) The semi-community system can be made most 
profitable by using a double-pen scratching shed. (3) For the com- 
munity system the long laying house, from 14 to 20 feet in depth, 
and divided into pens of convenient size, is the type most employed. 

Before building or planning a house, the needs of the birds and 
the means of attaining them should be studied carefully to deter- 
mine just what type of construction will meet the conditions best. 
The principles involved will hold true under all conditions. Some 
variations must be made to suit extreme temperature or moisture 
conditions. 

Essential Features. — The features of a good design may be 
enumerated as follows: (1) Economy; (2) convenience; (3) sun- 
light; (4) freedom from moisture; (5) abundance of ventilation; 
(6) plenty of room; (7) protection from excessive heat or cold; 
(8) proof against rats and mice; (9) sanitation. 

Economy of Construction. — It is not always necessary to pur- 
chase all new lumber for poultry houses. Often old farm buildings 
or second-hand lumber can be utilized to good advantage. Only 



Fig. 65.— Modern type of poultry house with 
both muslin and glass in front, providing an 
abundance of light and ventilation without drafts. 



106 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

sound boards and timbers should be used. In many cases there 
are buildings about the farm which, with little expense for material, 
can be remodelled into efficient poultry houses by laying a 
moisture-proof floor and by providing openings for muslin curtains 
and a suitably sheltered roosting place. 

When purchasing new lumber, a good sill and frame is impor- 
tant to insure permanence and rigidity. The very best grade of 
lumber is not necessary for roofing boards and side walls. One of 
the most economical methods of construction is to build the roof 
and side walls of tongued and grooved material, yellow pine 
" seconds " being satisfactory. The roof and back wall are then 
covered with a good grade of prepared roofing paper. 

Elaborate planning, expensive construction, and fancy trim- 
mings have a tendency to reduce economy and efficiency. The 
comfort of the birds is not increased by such practice. 

Convenience. — In planning the house, thought should be given 
to practical labor-saving devices — such as double swinging doors 
between the pens, with friction stops; curtains which are easily 
and quickly raised or lowered; large, self -feeding hoppers for dry 
mash, which will require filling but once a week at the most; 
drinking vessels which are easily and quickly cleaned and filled ; 
dropping boards which are easily and perfectly cleaned; nests 
which are easy of access; and an inside finish which can be quickly 
and easily cleaned. Convenience in removing litter and manure 
and in supplying new litter is important. Facility in collection of 
eggs should be considered. 

Elaborate mechanical devices which are designed to save labor, 
and do automatically much that should be done by the attendant, 
do not as a rule prove practical, or furnish suitable conditions 
for the birds that are kept in such houses. 

Sunlight should penetrate every part of the house as much of 
the day as possible. Sunlight is a perfect germ destroyer, purify- 
ing the parts of the house where it shines, besides adding warmth 
and making surroundings more congenial. It acts as a tonic to 
the birds during the short winter days and induces a heavier pro- 
duction. 

The house should be placed so that the sun will shine in at 
the openings every possible hour of the day during the winter 
months. The openings in the front should be of good height, and 
so placed that they will allow of a complete distribution of the 
sunlight in the house throughout the day. If possible, the entire 



ESSENTIAL FEATURES 



107 



floor of the house should receive the direct rays of the sun at some 
time during each day (Fig. 66). 

Freedom from Moisture. — Three kinds of moisture are frequently 
present in poultry houses where layers are kept: (1) Atmospheric 
moisture, (2) condensation moisture, and (3) soil moisture. 

Atmospheric moisture is always bad if the room is poorly 
ventilated. 




Sicnli^?v^ cl22 of the jyea.r' 




Jfo direct Sunlight 



Fig. 66. 



-Floor of standard multiple-unit laying house, showing distribution of sunlight 
at different seasons, sun elevation at 10 o'clock. 



Condensation moisture is caused by the moisture condensing 
from the air and hanging in drops from the roof and rafters. This 
is sometimes caused by lack of sufficient head room, but more often 
by insufficient fresh air. A concrete or solid masonry bank wall is 
very damp, as it acts as a wick, sucking outside moisture through 
during wet weather. This condition can be corrected by replacing 
glass sash in the front with muslin, thus insuring circulation. 



108 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

Soil moisture has a tendency to work under the foundatioD 
and up through the floor, dampening the litter. This should be 
corrected by the construction of proper drains under the foundation 
when the house is built. A properly constructed concrete floor 
will keep out much soil moisture, as it is impervious to water. This 
is made with a layer of tar paper or tar paint beneath the finish 
coat of cement. 

Ventilation. — The house should be well ventilated, without 
causing drafts to blow directly on the birds. An abundance of 
oxygen is essential if the birds are to perform their normal body 
functions. When a large number are continually crowded to- 
gether in close quarters during the entire winter, as is the case in 
most commercial laying houses, a large amount of fresh air is 
required. This can best be supplied by the use of muslin curtains 
in the front of the house, thus allowing at all times fresh air to 
pass in, and the moist, foul air to pass out. This change takes place 
without any drafts or rapid movements of air, the muslin acting 
as a sieve or buffer. In extremely cold sections, with birds not 
naturally suited to stand extremely low temperature, it is advis- 
able to have a second muslin curtain suspended in front of the 
roosting quarters to conserve the heat given off by their bodies at 
night. 

In the coldest climates special air shafts on the plan of King 
ventilators are sometimes used successfully instead of muslin cur- 
tains, or in combination with them. The out-take shaft is most 
essential. It may consist of a six-inch galvanized stove-pipe ex- 
tending from near the floor up through the highest point of the 
roof and projecting two feet or more above it. This pipe will be 
large enough for fifty fowls, and will take out the bad air and mois- 
ture if fresh air is allowed to enter through an in-take pipe or a 
small muslin curtain. 

A properly ventilated house will mean healthy birds, and less 
labor will be needed in keeping the house clean (Fig. 67). 

Plenty of Room for Exercise.— Exercise is essential for the health 
of the birds, and to keep them from taking on too much surplus 
fat, which would be detrimental to heavy egg production. This 
latter purpose is important with the heavier breeds during the 
second and third year. Exercise can best be provided by the 
feeding of grain rations in deep litter on the floor. 

The number of birds which can safely be kept in a house of 
given dimensions will depend somewhat upon the breed and upon 



ESSENTIAL FEATURES 



109 



■the experience of the poultryman caring for them. Under general 
conditions it is safest for the amateur or for the one with little 
experience not to crowd the birds too closely, — about one bird to 
every four and a half or five square feet of floor space. The expert 
who thoroughly understands the needs and methods of sanitation 
can successfully keep as high as one bird to every two and one-half 
or three square feet of floor space. A desirable area for birds 
under close confinement during the winter months, when a heavy 
egg yield is desirable, is approximately four square feet per bird. 




Fig. 67. — An efficient rear ventilator for summer use. It allows the air to enter the 
back of the house, and circulate between the sheathing and the roof, cooling the roosting 
quarters on summer nights. This is most valuable for shed-roofed houses that are covered 
with paper. 

Excessive Heat and Cold. — Protect the birds from cold, but do 
not keep them too hot. Birds will stand a great degree of cold; 
they do better in cold quiet air than in warmer drafty air. This 
latter condition is generally the starting point of colds which may 
develop into forms of roup, quickly putting the birds out of laying 
condition. The house should be so constructed that at any time 
the temperature will never get low enough to freeze the combs. 
This condition will vary with (1) the breed kept, (2) the vitality 
of the birds, (3) the scratching or other exercise, and (4) the amount 
of moisture in the house. 

Large-comb breeds must be given better protection and warmer 



110 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

houses than small- or close-comb breeds. Birds of low vitality 
with poor circulation will be much more liable to freeze their 
combs than those of high vitality. A cold, damp atmosphere will 
do more damage than a cold, dry atmosphere. The house should 
be so arranged that the temperature of the birds' bodies may be 
conserved. At night during very cold weather the use of muslin 
drop-curtains in front of the perches is sometimes helpful. 

Any arrangement which will make it possible to cool the house 
off during the hot summer nights will be very desirable. One 
method used is to provide a small hinged opening in the back of 
the house which when open allows the air to circulate freely 
between the ceiling and roof over the roosting quarters. 

Rats and Mice. — The house should be built, as nearly as pos- 
sible, to be proof against rats and mice. These enemies are often 
a source of great loss. The cost of a good concrete floor will often 
be saved in one year by keeping out rats. The protection against 
rats affords great saving in the feed bill, for a family of full-grown 
rats will eat or waste as much dry mash as a flock of twenty-five 
laying hens. 

Sanitation. — The internal construction of the house should be 
as plain as possible. If matched lumber is used, it offers less 
hiding-places for bacteria, lice, and mites, so that a spraying with 
a good disinfecting solution will reach all possible hiding places. 
All internal fixtures, such as nests and perches, should be made 
movable, so that they can be taken out of the house and thoroughly 
cleaned and disinfected. 

Size and Type of House. — The exact form of house has a 
definite influence on the cost of construction. The type selected 
will be determined by the number of birds to be kept and by the 
character of the land upon which it is to be located. The small 
colony house costs more for its capacity than the continuous 
house. In the latter a light door or muslin partition answers for 
two outside end walls. Aside from the importance of economy of 
construction, the colony house is colder, having more surface 
exposed to the varying weather conditions, and more labor is 
required to care for the birds kept in them. The larger the house 
and the larger the flock, the less will be the cost per bird for 
shelter and labor in caring for them. There are three different 
designs into which all types of poultry houses might logically be 
grouped: (1) The small single-pen colony house. (2) The long, 
continuous house of two or more pens. (3) The large single-unit 



MATERIALS FOR LAYING HOUSES 



111 



house, ranging from fourteen to twenty feet deep and from forty 
to over one hundred feet long where large numbers are kept in one 
flock. The last is the most economical unit where eggs are of 
primary consideration (Fig. 68). 

Simplicity of Design. — In planning and building poultry houses 
it should be the idea to have the design and construction as simple 
as possible. All extra trimming and ornamental features add 
greatly to the cost and do not enhance the efficiency. Quality in 
construction should also be considered, to make all permanent 
buildings as durable as possible. Movable structures of small 

Long House 





< 120' > 


t 
1 


























J 

JO 

1 



























Larye Co2o?ry House 
/0O --i 



<Sm.aU Colony House 



Fig. 68. — Three types of laying houses. The long house is used for small-unit flocks 
with intensive methods for breeding purposes. The large colony house is for large flocks 
for market eggs. The small colony house is used for breeding in small flocks. 



size should be built strong enough to stand the handling and mov- 
ing to which they are subjected. In some sections it is the practice 
to build extremely cheap houses directly on the ground; in such 
cases the walls and posts rot and the building is not very long lived. 
This practice cannot be generally recommended, but it may prove 
practical where low-grade lumber can be secured at low prices. 

Materials for Laying Houses. — Materials used for poultry 
houses are: Wood, hollow tile, brick, concrete blocks, and solid 
concrete. The first two are the only ones which prove good for 
the laying house. Brick and concrete walls are apt to make the 
interior of the house damp and cold in the winter. Roup has been 
very prevalent where the walls were of concrete. Concrete-block 



112 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



houses have been used successfully, but they are expensive both 
as to cost of material and labor, and are not so dry as houses built 
of wood or tile. In most locations and under most conditions the 
use of wood with a shingled or paper-covered roof would be the 
most economical and furnish the best conditions. The house of 
tile with stucco finish offers favorable conditions for laying hens, 
but the cost is about one-third more than where wood is used. 

Height of House. — A low house, provided it allows head room 
for the attendant, is more economical to construct, easier to warm, 
retains heat better, and suffers less from various changes in outside 
weather than does the higher house. A good plan is to have the 




Fig. 69. — Diagram showing lines of sun's rays in September and December. The front 
of the house is 8 ft. 6 in. high and the back i ft. 6 in. high, with a width from front to back 
of 20 feet. 

house high enough so that all work can be done by the attendant 
without danger of striking his head against the rafters. With a 
muslin front, this height will provide ample air for as many birds 
as the floor space will accommodate (Fig. 69). 

Shape of the House. — The nearer thehouse approaches a square 
the less lumber will be required to build it; therefore, the deeper 
the house, all things considered, the more economical its construc- 
tion (Fig. 70) . Poultry houses which are built very narrow require 
a front and back wall of nearly the same height as a much deeper 
house. The only extra expense in the deeper house is the extension 
of the roof and part of the end walls. To increase the depth from 
front to back would give a greater floor space with less cost per 
square foot of floor space; this would mean less cost per bird. The 
limit to the depth of the house should be determined, in large part, 
by the facility with which the sunlight can get into the back part. 



STANDARD POULTRY-HOUSE UNIT 



113 



A depth of twenty feet in a shed-roof type of construction is 
deep enough; a greater depth 
requires a half-monitor roof, 
which has many undesirable 
features (Fig. 72). 



2Ck2&-400a i & 



SO' 'Around 



/8xZ2%-400^A 



SOfbArounei 



/6 , Jt25'-400sy.A. 



82' Around 



/4'x28i^400sfA. 



85fr'Around 



Note. — The nearer the rect- 
angle approaches a square the 
smaller will be its perimeter, the 
area remaining the same. 

Standard Poultry-house 
Unit. — The use of a standard 
unit of known capacity gives 
a basis from which to work 
in extending the plant. It 
may be necessary to vary it 
considerably. For the shed- 
roof type of construction, one 
of the most economical units 
is a room twenty by twenty 
feet. If it is high enough to 
give ample amount of head room for the attendant,, there will be 
rive Unite, capacity SOO birds 



/2x33&400*f A. 



SO %} Around. 



/0'x40=400s<i.A 



/OO 'Around 



Fig. 70. — Shapes of houses compared, show- 
ing the requirements of wall material. As the 
shape approaches a square the perimeter be- 
comes shorter. 



Double Unit, capacity 200 birds 

40' 

f- 




Single Unit, capacity /OO birds 




Fig. 71. 



-The possible growth of the multiple-unit plan,— single, then double, and an 
indefinite future increase. 



114 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



sunlight in the back part of the house and the floor space is very 
large. Such a unit will have a capacity of one hundred birds, allow- 
ing four square feet per bird; it is adapted to all climates where poul- 
try are commercially kept in the United States, and is one of the most 
efficient producing units. This unit is adapted to both the intensive 
poultry farm and the general farm where large flocks are kept. 
The capacity of houses with this unit can be increased indefinitely 
by the addition of other such units. For example, if five units 
were used the house would be twenty by one hundred feet and 
would have a capacity of five hundred birds (Fig. 71). 

Type of Roof. — The type or form of roof should be studied 
carefully, as it is the most expensive part of the house. It usually 
covers only one floor, and must be made water tight and strong 



SHED 



TWO -THIRDS SPAN 



EVEN SPAN 





MONITOR 



HALF MONITOR 




HIP 




Fig. 72. 



-Six types of roofs for poultry houses. The shed roof is most common 
and is the best. 



enough to support heavy snows and windstorms. The accompany- 
ing sketch (Fig. 72) shows six different types of roofs used for 
poultry houses. Each of these has a variety of uses. There is 
much difference in the lumber and labor required to build the dif- 
ferent types. Care should be used to build the best and get the 
most economical type. The three which offer the best conditions 
in most instances are the shed roof, the two-thirds span, and the 
even-span or gable roof. In these three types of roofs with a uni- 
form floor space and equal pitch, the amount of material is about 
the same. 

In actual practice it is possible to construct the shed roof with 
less pitch. When this is done, the shed roof is the most economical, 
requiring less labor to erect; a higher front is possible, which enables 



TYPE OF ROOF 



115 



a greater amount and better distribution of sunlight. All the roof 
water is carried to the rear; this does away with half the amount of 
eave troughs required on a two-pitch roof, and keeps the front of 
the house dry and clean. A shed-roof house is also much cooler 
in summer; the slope of the roof, being toward the north, does not 
receive the vertical rays of the sun. The shed roof is well adapted 
to any house twenty feet or less in width. The greater width is 
most economical. In such construction a central girder or purlin 
should reach the entire length of the house, with posts every ten 
feet, to support the roof (Fig. 73). 

A gable roof provides garret space, which can be stuffed with 
straw to make the house dryer and warmer; but it increases the 
amount of labor and offers a hiding place for mites and parasites. 




Fig. 73. — A well-framed poultry house. 

The combination or two-thirds span roof is often used, where 
it is desired to have an alley in the back of the house, as more 
head room can be obtained in the back portion of the house with- 
out having excessive height in front. This type requires more 
labor to build, as there is much more fitting and sawing to be done. 

For houses greater than twenty feet in width, the half-monitor 
type of roof is the most desirable, and especially where it is neces- 
sary to have a central work alley with pens on both sides. The 
upper window allows the sun to penetrate to the back half of the 
house and gives an abundance of ventilation. This type of house 
is apt to be cold in the winter, as the warm air rises and comes in 
contact with the cold glass in the peak and cools rapidly. This 
can be partially counteracted by stretching muslin over the inside 
of the sash to keep the warm air from circulating directly against 
the glass. 

The A-roof is a very economical method of covering a given 



116 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

floor space, but has not been used to any great extent, as it does 
not provide ample head room. It is sometimes used for small, 
single-pen houses where small flocks are kept, if it is not necessary 
to enter the house to perform all the work. 

Foundation. — An efficient foundation adds durability and aids 
in keeping the house dry. The materials used are brick, stone, 
concrete, and wooden posts. Posts of locust, cedar, or other 
durable wood may be used on a stone or. cinder footing. They 
are apt to settle and are not so durable as masonry walls. They do 




Fig. 74. — Four plans for foundation and floor construction. A, Floor flush with top 
of sill; B, finished floor flush with bottom of sill, the latter being laid in cement; C, founda- 
tion wall extending above floor level; D, construction suitable for board floor. 



not aid in keeping out rats. The most efficient plan is a solid wall 
of masonry. The foundation should be built deep enough to pre- 
vent heaving by frost and to help keep out water. It should sup- 
port the building without any settling. The foundation should also 
be economical as to cost of labor and material. A brick or stone 
wall, especially the former, is expensive from a standpoint of 
labor, as the brick and stone have to be laid in mortar by experi- 
enced masons. Stone or brick walls built loose are not permanent 
and, therefore, not desirable. The concrete foundation, if properly 
built, furnishes the most durable wall. Care should be taken to 
have the underdrainage deep enough, the foundation course prop- 
erly tamped, and the mixtures rich in cement (Fig. 74). 



FLOOR 117 

A good foundation is made as follows : A trench is dug about 
one foot wide and from two to three feet deep, depending on the 
climate and the nature of the soil. The bottom should be filled 
to a depth of one foot with loose stones or cinders to give drainage. 
The rest is filled with concrete, the wall being carried about six 
inches above the level of the ground. Bolts are imbedded in it 
every fifteen feet, to later hold the sill in place. 

Floor. — There are three different types of floors used, — earth, 
wood, and concrete. In deciding which one of these floors to use, 
the following factors are to be considered: (1) Dryness; (2) a 
smooth, hard surface which can be easily cleaned; (3) rat and 
mouse proof; (4) economy of construction. 

The floors should be a few inches above the outside grade so 
that surface water will not run into the house. An improperly 
constructed floor means damp houses and an unhealthy flock. 
The earth floor is not generally desirable, because soil water is 
brought to the surface by capillary action, and there is the possi- 
bility of surface water soaking under the foundation and dampen- 
ing the litter or flooding the floor. 

On high, well-drained sandy soils with a low water table, the 
earth floors prove satisfactory; but it is necessary, if the house is 
to be kept perfectly clean, to expend an excessive amount of labor 
in cleaning at frequent intervals by removing four or five inches of 
top soil and replacing it with clean sand. Even with this precau- 
tion there is always danger of disease germs lurking in the soil and 
at some future time causing infection. 

Board floors are undesirable, for the following reasons: They 
rot out quickly if they are not raised above the ground so as to 
allow the air to circulate freely under them. If raised very high 
the house is much colder, which is not desirable in winter. If the 
floors are raised only a few inches above the ground, they offer 
harbor for rats. They are also hard to keep clean, no matter how 
carefully they are constructed, as there are always crevices which 
offer hiding places for lice and mites and disease germs. 

A cement floor, if properly constructed, offers ideal conditions, 
and it is unquestionably the most desirable for laying houses. It 
is absolutely moisture-proof if it has the moisture insulation, prac- 
tically rat-proof, easily cleaned, and quickly and thoroughly dis- 
infected. It costs no more to build than a good wooden floor and 
remains good for all future time. 

The following construction for concrete floors is recommended : 



118 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

Excavate the soil inside of the house to a depth of at least eight 
inches below the top of the foundation wall, place a layer of crushed 
stone, cinders, or coarse gravel about eight inches thick over the 
bottom, tamping thoroughly and leaving it level. Over this place 
a rough coat of concrete about three inches thick, made by mixing 
one part of good cement with three parts of fine sharp sand and 
five parts of coarse gravel or cinders. Put one thickness of tarred 
building paper over the rough coat while fresh, lapping and cement- 
ing the seams, nailing it down every two feet with roofing nails, 
letting the heads stick out about a quarter of an inch to hold the 
finish coat. One inch of finish coat should be laid over the paper. 
This is composed of one part of cement to three parts of coarse sand. 

Material for Framing. — The frame should be built of material 
large enough to give rigidity to the building, and j^et not so heavy 
as greatly to increase the cost. For a laying house twenty feet or 
less in width, 2x6 inch lumber doubled should be used for sills, 
firmly bolted to the foundation. Hemlock, yellow pine, chestnut, 
or other material of equal grade may be used. The lumber used 
depends upon the kind which is the cheapest in the vicinity. For 
studding use 2x4 inch pieces, and double these for corner posts. 
The plates are best constructed of 2 x 4 inch material doubled, 
spiking them together and breaking joints. One great advantage 
of double sills and plates is the possibility of strengthening weak 
places and of correcting any crooked or warped timbers that might 
be used. For rafters use 2x6 inch material for anything greater 
than ten-foot spans, 2x4 inch being sufficiently strong for any- 
thing under that length. For a purlin or girder in a wide house 
2x6 inch material is used. For all light partitions 2x3 inch 
material is heavy enough, and this may be laid flat. The rafters 
and studding should be placed not more than two feet apart, — 
better, sixteen inches. If the outside boards run up and down, the 
studding may be six feet apart, with 2x4 inch intermediates 
parallel with the sill (Fig. 84). 

Walls and Partitions. — A necessary feature in the construction 
of walls is to have them tight, to eliminate the danger of drafts. 
One of the best materials which can be used is tongue-and-groove 
boards, securely driven together. It is not well to use boards 
greater than eight inches in width, as they are apt to warp, and 
when they dry out leave open spaces. If siding boards are used, 
the lap or " novelty " siding makes tight walls, leaving a smooth 
inside wall. If shingles are used on the outside of the walls, a 



DOORS 



119 



tight board wall should be laid first, so that the house can be easily 
cleaned and kept free from vermin ; it will greatly increase warmth 
in the winter. When it is desired to line the inside back wall of 
the house, tongue-and-groove boards are the .best. They should 
be free from extra beading. It is rarely necessary to ceil inside 
the roof of the poultry house, except perhaps over the roosting 
places in cold climates. 

In the construction of intermediate walls or partitions, a good 
method is to board the bottom part about thirty inches solid, the 
remaining distance being covered with wire or cloth. The use 
of cloth makes the building cheaper, but is less durable and collects 
dust. In houses over forty feet long, one cross partition or more 
should be put in to prevent a draft blowing through the house. 



Hfp 



Fig. 75. — Four styles of doors for poultry houses. A, Brooder house door, cut in the 
centre so that the top half only need be opened, providing ventilation but preventing floor 
draft; B, door hung to swing both ways; C, double doors for use where overhead trolleys 
are used; D, sliding door. 



Doors. — All doors in laying houses should be large enough to 
permit the attendant to pass through quickly with feed and water. 
They should admit of easy opening and closing with a minimum 
loss of time. They should be so placed that the work can be done 
with the least possible retracing of steps, and should be strong 
and durable, as they are much used. The doors between pens 
should be arranged in a straight line, hinging on one side with 
double-action spring hinges, so that they may be opened from either 
side and will close automatically as the attendant passes through, 
being held in place by friction stops. All doors should be raised 
above the floor at least eight inches, so that in opening and closing 
they will be clear of the litter on the floor. The sketch shows 
types and methods of hanging poultry doors (Fig. 75). 



120 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



Windows and Curtains. — Window and curtain openings in the 
poultry house are valuable, in that they admit sunlight and fresh air, 
cleansing the house, and making it a congenial place for the birds. 
They should be so arranged that they can be opened quickly and 
easily, and the danger of breakage thus reduced to a minimum. 















1 
1 
1 








I 

1 
1 




7bo narrow and. too low 




1 
1 

1 

1 





























Corr&ct position 
of opem'ny^s 




























FlG 76.— Three plans for placing openings in front wall of poultry houses. 

Sunlight is necessary to the fowls, but too much glass makes 
the house cold at night and too warm in the daytime. An excessive 
amount of glass makes the house too expensive. A good rule for 
large houses using muslin openings is to allow one square foot of 



WINDOWS AND CURTAINS 



121 



glass to every sixteen square feet of floor space, or one square foot 
for every four birds. The amount of muslin can be determined 
by allowing double the number of square feet that there is glass, 
or one square foot of muslin to every eight square feet of floor space. 
The windows should be placed high up in front and run vertically 
rather than be horizontal. In this way the sun's rays will have a 
chance to sweep across the entire floor at some time of the day, 
drying and purifying the entire area (Fig. 76). The sunlight 
is most needed in the winter when the sun is lowest. In the 
summer the hot noontime sun is kept out by a projecting roof 
(Fig. 89). 

The direct rays of the sun should strike all of the floor area 
possible (Fig. 66), but it is not practicable to have the house high 
enough to let the direct rays strike the dropping boards at the 




Fig. 77. — Types of poultry windows. A, Hinged at the side and opening inward, the 
method preferred; B, sliding window; C, hinged at the top and opening outward; D, upper 
sash hinged at the top and opening outward and lower sash stationary. 



back of the room. This would tend to cause the birds to congre- 
gate there in the winter when they should be working in the litter 
on the floor. 

Extremely large sizes of window lights should be avoided, as 
they are expensive to replace when broken. Very small lights are 
undesirable, as the sash bars shut out a great deal of sunlight and 
the glass is hard to clean. Where possible, a single sash should 
be used in an opening, as it is cheaper than a divided sash. Single 
ones require very simple frames which can be made at home; they 
also allow of hinging on the side or top, making them easy to open. 
Figure 77 shows different plans for windows used in poultry houses. 

Muslin curtains should be stretched on light frames built of 
1x3 inch strips and hinged at the top. The frames are raised 
up inside by means of pulleys and cord. Sometimes they are hung 
on cords and pulley and hang below the windows outside the house. 



122 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



When made, light-weight muslin should be used, canvas being 
too heavy and cheesecloth too light. At best a great deal of 
dust is present in the poultry house, which requires that these 
muslin curtains be beaten or swept occasionally to clean them so 
the air can pass through freely. Too large or too long frames are 
objectionable, as they get out of shape easily and give trouble in 

raising and lowering them. 
A frame about 4x5 feet 
is a very convenient size 
(Fig. 78). A glass sash is 
sometimes placed in the 
centre of the frame so that, 
when the curtain is down 
on stormy days, sunlight can 
get into the house — if there 
is no other glass window. 

Material for Roofing. — 
The material used to cover 
the roof depends almost 
entirely upon the angle or 
pitch. A roof with less than 
one-third pitch should not 
be covered with shingles, as 
the water does not run off 
quickly and the roof will rot. 
A driving rain is apt to run 
under the shingles and cause 
the roof to leak. A good 
grade of roofing paper may 
be used, as it is much 
cheaper and if properly cared 
for is as durable as shingles. 
Such paper can be used on 
roofs which are nearly flat. 
A roof with low pitch and tight paper is warmer in summer 
and also warmer in winter than a shingle roof. It can be made 
cooler in the summer by providing ample ventilation from the rear 
over the roosts (Fig. 67). 

Preservation of Buildings. — When permanent buildings are 
erected, it is poor policy not to preserve them both outside and in. 
Give the exterior two or more coats of paint if dressed lumber is 




Fig. 78. — Two plans for constructing frames for 
muslin curtains. 



REVIEW 123 

used, and treat the inside with a good whitewash mixture made to 
adhere well. The latter will act as a cleanser and disinfectant. 
All window sashes should be well painted. If roofing paper is 
used, the directions that come with it should be followed closely. 
Where extremely cheap buildings are constructed of rough lumber, 
the cost of painting them may be too great. Whitewash may be 
applied with a spray pump. 

Tar is one of the best preservatives known. It is a by-product 
from coal in the manufacture of gas and is very cheap. It may be 
diluted with gasoline and used in warm weather without artificial 
heat. It should be used on all posts, sills, and parts exposed to 
great moisture. It is suitable for all kinds of roofs except those 
covered with tin. It is used also to paint the outside of buildings, 
but its monotonous black color should be relieved by yellow or 
other appropriate trimming. Tar will last longer than oil paints, 
is much cheaper, and preserves wood better. It may be used on 
the dropping boards, roosts, and nests to fill crevices where lice 
would hide. 

REVIEW. 

1. Contrast the old and new ideas in poultry-house construction. 

2. Discuss type of house in its relation to three systems of poultry farming. 

3. Enumerate nine features in a good poultry house. 

4. Discuss the five features which you consider most important. 

5. Tell of three types of laying houses. 

6. What two features should be considered in deciding on height of house? 

7. Describe a standard unit and discuss its possible development. 

8. Name materials often used in poultry-house construction. 

9. Which is most generally used, and why? 

10. Name and define six types of roofs. 

11. Which roof type is best? 

12. Give the several types of foundations used in poultry-house construction. 

13. Discuss the use for floors of dirt, wood, and concrete. 

14. Give specifications for constructing a concrete floor. 

15. What sizes of lumber are used for framing? 

16. What kinds of lumber are used for walls? 

17. Discuss the use of doors and manner of hanging. 

18. How should the windows and curtains be placed? 

19. Describe methods of hanging windows. 

20. Tell of muslin frames, and manner of opening and closing. 

21. On what pitches of roof may shingles be used? When use roofing paper? 

22. Give reasons for using paint, whitewash, and tar. 

References. — Poultry-house Construction and its Influence on the Domes- 
tic Fowl, by C. L. Opperman, Maryland Bulletin 146. Poultry-house Con- 
struction, by H. R. Lewis, Bulletin New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Poultry- 
house Construction, by W. A. Brown, Maine Extension Bulletin, volume 4, 
No. 111. Building Poultry Houses, by Rice and Rogers, Cornell Bulletin 274. 
Poultry-house Construction, by Halpin and Ocock, Wisconsin Bulletin 215. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

The location of the house having been decided upon, the 
desired height of the floor should be determined, — marked Z in 
figure 80. This level should be at least six inches above the 
highest point of the ground site of the house. In cases where the 
house is built on very sloping land, it may be desirable to do some 
grading by cutting away the higher portions, using this material 
to fill up the lower level before the foundation is laid out (Fig. 79) . 



Fig. 79. — Cross section of hillside, showing manner of grading before laying out founda- 
tion. The long dotted line shows original slope and the heavy black line shows the surface 
graded for the poultry house. The house is shown in outline. Drain tile may be placed at 
A to carry water below the house. 

Methods of Laying out Foundation. — Locate the corner of the 
building (Fig. 80), and drive around this corner three stakes, 
as L, M, and N, about three feet apart. On each of these stakes 
find the level of the floor Z, by the use of the levelling board or 
transit. Connect these stakes with boards, shown as L M and 
M N, having the top of each board level with Z. In using the 
levelling board and spirit level in small buildings, it is well to 
locate a stake in the centre of the house which is level Avith Z, 
and work from this to the four corners. In long houses it is neces- 
sary to start from the point Z, and work to the different corners 
in a direct line by the use of intermediate stakes, all of which should 
be level with Z. Next stretch a line, H I, over the point 0, which 
is the corner of the building, in a direction which will represent 
the back of the house. Measure off from the point on this line 
the number of feet which will represent the length of the house. 
124 



DIGGING THE TRENCH 



125 



Drive a stake, marked P, the top of which will be level with Z. 
About this stake drive three other stakes, L', M', N', and connect 
these with two boards, the tops of which are level with Z. Next 
pass a string, R S', over the point P at right angles to the line 
P. The best way to determine the right angle is by the use of 
the right-angle triangle. Measure off on the line P S' eight feet, 
and on the line P six feet. Move the string back and forth 
until the distance between these two points is ten feet. When this 
angle is determined, measure off on the line P S' the distance 
equal to the width of the building, and drive a stake at this point, 
S. Construct the regular corner boards about this point, level 







Fig. 80. — Diagram showing method of laying out foundation. (See text for directions.) 
The foundation cannot be laid out too carefully. 

with Z. Determine the corner Y by measuring from $ in the 
direction of Y, the distance being equal to the length of the house, 
and also from in the direction of Y, the distance being equal to 
the width of the house. The intersection of these two lines will 
be the point Y. Construct the regulation corner boards about 
this corner, level with the point Z. Stretch two lines which will 
locate the outside of the finished wall. This line will be level with 
the point Z. For laying out the length of the wall or trench, other 
lines may be stretched parallel to these, indicating the width of 
the trench or wall desired. 

Digging the Trench. — The trench for the foundation wall 
should be dug at least four inches wider than the thickness of the 
wall to be built. The dirt is thrown outside so that later on it 



126 



PRACTICE OF POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



(-.•in be graded up against the foundation, turning the water away. 
The trench should be dug approximately three feet deep, or below 
the average frost line. Before laying the foundation, if the ground 
is moist, it. is well to lay a three-inoh tile in the bottom of the 
trenoh (Fig, 81, a), running it to some suitable outlet at a lower 
level. All or- laying the tile, the trench should be filled up to a 
depth of about one foot below ground with stones or coarse cinders 
(Fig. 81, 6). This should be firmly tamped and levelled. This 
gives a good foundation on which to lay the stone, Wrick, or con 
orete foundation wall, with little danger of heaving. A concrete 
wall is the most desirable and economical for the foundation. 

Making Frames for Concrete Walls. The frames Tor concrete 
w:ills are usually made of one-inch material, preferably eight to 




SfflJrv 



Fig, m 1m\ q stops in the oonsl motion of a oo&oroto foundation, a, Tile in i lie bo1 ti>m 
of tronoh; b, tamped oinders ovor drain tile; c, forms ready for pouring oonorete; d, forms 
filled with oonorete, sill bolt in plaoe; ». forma removed, foundation oompleted, and oinders 
filled In on both sides, 

ten inches wide. These frames should be made in sections, cleats 
being used to fasten them together, all cleats being on the outside, 
[f the wall is to be eighteen inohes high, the frames should be con- 
structed eighteen inohes wide. They may be from eight lo sixteen 
feet in length, so they can be easily handled. After the frames are 

made, they should be Set in the trench so that the lop is level with 

the top of the foundation wall when completed. They can be held 

securely in place with stakes outside o( the frame ( Fig. 82), The 

corners should be securely nailed together to prevent bulging. 
Every three feet, cross pieces should be nailed io keep the frames 
from spreading while the concrete is being poured (Fig. SI c, d). 
The frames should be constructed and set up so that they can be 

readily taken to pieces without breaking the wall. One set o\' 

frames can be used over and over again. If they are no longer 

desired for that purpose, the hoards can he used for rooting or 



CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS 



L27 



other purposes In the building itself. II an extra-high frame is 
built, it is necessary to brace it above ground with diagonal stakes 
to prevent bulging. 

Concrete Foundations.- For the construction of the wall itself, 
the following materials will be necessary: cement, sharp coarse 
sand, and some material which will serve as aggregate or filler, 
as course gravel, stone, or cinders. For making the mixture, a 
mixing board should be made, large enough to allow room for 
shoveling the mixture over and over in two different piles (Fig. 
82). A floor 10 x 12 feet will give ample room for the work. A 

desirable mixture for the wall itself is what is known as L-3-5, or 
one part cement, three of sand, and live of the aggregate. These 
should be measured, and should be mixed on the board in alternate 




I'm, H2 I'l.'irmi' frcnii ronri'Hi' in completed form for foundation wall. 



layers. A wheelbarrow of known capacity is very desirable. After 
the ingredients are on the mixing board, the entire batch should be 
shoveled over to insure a perfect mixing. To facilitate mixing, it 
is desirable to have a man with a garden rake do this work during 
the shoveling. After the mixing, all the water should be added 

that the mixture will hold; but not enough should he put on to 

allow any to run off; this would be a waste of cement and weaken 

the mixture. When thoroughly mixed with water, the concrete is 

ready to put into the trench, which may be done with a wheel 
barrow or shovel. While the concrete is being poured, long bolts 
are placed about ten feet apart to later hold the sill. Thorough 
tamping is important, and to be complete the concrete should be 



128 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

tamped enough to bring the water to the surface. The frame should 
be filled to within about an inch of the top (Fig. 81, d, e), and the 
remaining space should be filled with a wearing coat composed of 
one part of cement and three parts of sand, mixed in the same way. 
This should be smooth and the corners bevelled to prevent chipping. 
During the process of pouring the concrete, anchor bolts should be 
imbedded every ten feet, allowing them to project above the frame 
about five inches if a 4 x 6 inch sill is used. It will require from 
two to three days for the mixture to harden before taking the 
frames away, but before much pressure is put on the wall it should 
be allowed to season. It will season more quickly and become 
harder during moist weather than when it is exceptionally dry. 
For this reason, it is desirable during very dry weather to wet the 
wall down occasionally. Fifteen days is usually required for proper 
seasoning before the operation of building the house should be 
commenced. 

Construction of Frame. — After the concrete wall is finished, 
the guide lines should be re-stretched in order that the sills may 
be laid true. They should be laid to the outside string, as they are 
apt to vary some in width. The sills should be bolted firmly to 
the foundation, washers being used so that the nuts may be set 
very tight and'not wear into the wood. The corner stud posts 
should be nailed to the sill, flush with the outside of the sill. The 
corner posts should be made plumb and held perpendicular by 
nailing scantling braces running each way; if these four posts are 
properly plumbed, the plates being nailed on them, a perfectly 
upright building is secured. It is possible by the use of the square 
to insure perfect fit when marking and cutting the rafters. But 
usually it is desirable to cut one pattern rafter, putting it in place 
to see if it fits properly, then using it to cut the others by. 

Plans and Specifications of Laying Houses. — The following 
description of the plan shown in figure 85 gives the important 
features for a standard-unit laying house. 

Double-Unit House. — The outside dimensions are 40 x 20 feet, 
sills to be 4 x 6 inches, and to be bolted to a concrete foundation 
wall eight inches wide and twenty inches deep. This is laid on 
tamped cinder or crushed stone, the entire depth of the foundation 
trench being three feet. 

The shed-roof type of construction is used, with nine-foot 
studding in front and a height of four and one-half feet in the 
back (Figs. 83, 84, and 85). All studding and rafters are 2x4 inch 



DOUBLE-UNIT HOUSE 



129 



hemlock or yellow pine. A 2 x 6 inch girder runs the length of the 
building supporting the rafters along their centre. The girder is 



Floor Plan. 






n^ 



Brcody 

coop 



] r- 



I III 
|M*SI|I 

! ^1 

HOPPER 



7jp 



/ EU,a.Ud Platform. \ 



B N 



33E 



ci.O 



\ 



Cross Section. 




Fig. 83. — Working plans of a double-unit laying house. Each unit 20 x 20 feet, with a 
capacity of 100 birds. 

supported every ten feet by 4 x 4 inch posts, resting on concrete 
piers. The plates which rest on studs should be made of 2 x 4 inch 
material doubled, and joints " broken." 
9 



130 



PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



All outside walls and roof are single boarded, preferably of 
eight-inch tongue-and-groove yellow pine. White pine can be 
used, but is much more expensive. The roof and back wall should 
be covered with a good patent roofing paper; all joints should be 
carefully lapped and cemented. 

The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top and 
can be lifted up. The 3x5 foot windows are hinged at the side 
and open as indicated on the floor plan. One window in each pen 
should be so constructed that part of the wall will open when 
desired, thus making a combination door and window. This will 
greatly facilitate cleaning. 

The dropping boards, perches, and nests are best arranged on 
the back wall. The perches are hinged to the wall so that they 







Fig. 84. — Frame of standard multiple-unit laying house — light, cheap, yet durable. 



may be hooked up when cleaning. The nests are darkened by a 
hinged door in front, which may be let down when it is desired to 
remove the eggs. 

The dividing partition between the units is built of boards and 
extends from the back wall to within six feet of the front wall ; the 
remaining space is left entirely open. This protects the birds from 
any drafts when on the roosts. When desired, portable light-wire 
partitions may be used to separate the units. 

A large dry-mash hopper should be built in this middle parti- 
tion (Fig. 83). If four or more units are built, it is necessary to 
have only one hopper in the centre of each two units, the other 
dividing partition being used for nesting space. The construction 
of the hopper is shown in the following chapter. 

There is an elevated platform under the muslin front, which 
provides room for the water fountain and grit and shell hoppers. 



DOUBLE-UNIT HOUSE 



131 



When the house is completed, a concrete floor should be laid, 
and should consist of three or four distinct layers. First, a layer 
of about six to ten inches of cinders or coarse gravel, tamped 
thoroughly. This serves for drainage purposes to keep the soil 
moisture away from the bottom of the floor. Next, a rough coat 
of concrete about four inches thick, and over this a finished coat 
of two parts of sand with one of cement, trowelled smooth. 

Where there is danger of much moisture coming up from below, 
it is advisable to put a layer of tarred building paper between the 
rough and finish coats of cement. It should be nailed down with 




Fig. 85.- 



-Double-unit house completed. Note the combination door and window, 
and the arrangement of openings for light and ventilation. 



flat-headed nails; the heads of the latter should be left sticking 
out about one-quarter of an inch to hold the top coat of cement. 

Such a floor is moisture proof and vermin proof, and is easily 
and quickly cleaned. 

The completed house is shown in figure 85. 

Materials. — In the following list of materials required for 
building a double unit, as shown in the working drawings given in 
figure 83, the prices quoted are only approximate : 

Lumber: Sills 6 ps. 4" x 6" x 20' 

Plates. 8 ps. 2" x 4" x 20' 

Posts 2 ps. 4" x 4" x 14' 

2 ps. 4" x 4" x 18' 
Studding 9 ps. 2" x 4" x 18' 

4 ps. 2" x 4" x 14' 

Rafters 22 ps. 2" x 4" x 22' 

Frame for nests and dropping boards 5 ps. 2" x 3" x 16' hemlock. 

Roof, dropping boards, walls, and nests, 8-inch tongue-and- 

groove boards 2,200 sq. ft. 

Curtain frames and trim, 1" x 2" white pine 200 linear feet 



132 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



Nests 1" x 4" white pine 100 linear feet 

Broody coop one bundle plaster lath. 

Nails 10 lbs. 20-penny wire. 

50 lbs. 10-penny wire. 
20 lbs. 8-penny wire. 

Approximate cost of the above materials f 75.54 

Roofing paper, 1,060 sq. ft., or 11 rolls, at $3.00 33.00 

Four special sash, 3' x 5', at $2.00 8.00 

Muslin, 8 sq. yards, at 123^ cents per yard 1.00 

Hardware, as hinges, locks, tacks, hooks, and wire 4.75 

Foundation and floor — 

Cement, 35 bags, at 50 cents $17.50 

Cinders or gravel, 30 yards at $1.00 30.00 

Sand, 5 yards 7.50 

55.00 



Total cost, not including labor, if concrete floor is put in 

the house and cinders and sand have to be purchased $176.29 

This gives a cost per square foot of floor space of $0,222. 
A cost per running foot of house of $4.44. 
A cost per bird, allowing 4 sq. ft. per bird, of $0,888. 

Adding labor to this at one-fourth the cost of material, the total cost is 
$222.36, or $1.11 per bird. 

Long Laying House of Small Units. — This house is intended 

for breeding pens. It is built 
in three sections, each forty- 
eight feet long, with solid parti- 
tions between them. The plan 
shown is for one section only, 
— the material for three sec- 
tions. 



Frame for Front. 



— 3' — 

DOO* 



T 




Fig. 86. — Working plana of small-unit laying house. (See text for description.) 



LONG LAYING HOUSE OF SMALL UNITS 



133 



It will be noticed that a door is in the front of each pen (Figs. 
86 and 87) ; this is necessary in a house to be used for educational 
and experimental work, but is not desirable in a farm poultry- 
house where one attendant will care for the entire flock. The 
muslin curtain should then be extended to cover this space. 

Attention is called to the presence of an elevated walk in front 
of the house, to allow easy access to each pen and yet allow the 
birds to enter the yards which extend to the south or front side. 




Fig. 87. — Long laying house as planned in figure 86. The small unit3 are suitable for 

breeding purposes. 

Note the hinged clapboard on the outside of the back wall, 
which can be opened, and thus allow air to circulate around the 
perches on hot summer nights (Figs. 67 and 86). * 

Materials. — The following list of material is required to build 
three sections of this type, making 16 x 48 feet: 

Foundation, 2 feet deep and 8 inches wide — 20 bags cement, 2 cubic yards 

gravel, 6 cubic yards cinders. 
All framing material hemlock or yellow pine — 

Sills 8 ps. 2" x 6" x 20' 

8 ps. 2" x 6" x 16' 

3 ps. 2" x 4" x 16' 
End and division studs 10 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 

15 ps. 2" x 4" x 7' 

10 ps. 2" x 4" x 6' 
Side wall studs 36 ps. 2" x 4" x 83^' 

23 ps. 2" x 4" x bV 2 ' 

Extras for short pieces 3 ps. 2" x 4" x 12' 

Corner and division posts (doubled) 18 ps. 2" x 4" x 8J^' 

10 ps. 2" x 4" x 5}4' 

Rafters 25 ps. 2" x 4" x 18' 

Girder (doubled) 4 ps. 2" x 4" x 20' 

2 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 
Plates 8 ps. 2" x 4" x 20' 

4 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 



134 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

Roof boards 900 sq. ft. ship-lap. 

Roof paper 900 sq. ft. 

Supports for dropping boards, etc 32 ps. 2" x 3" x 4' 

. 20 ps. 2" x 4" x 3' 

Perches 12 ps. 2" x 2" x 10' 

Inside back sheathing, dropping boards, partitions, etc . . 700 sq. ft. ship-lap. 

Nest platform 250 linear ft. shingle lath. 

Siding v 550 sq. ft. novelty siding. 

4 cloth curtains, 4' x 5' 
4 window sash, 5' x 3' 
Trimming, doors, nests, etc., dressed white pine. . 200 linear ft., 1" x 2" 

100 linear ft., l"x 3" 
500 linear ft., l"x 4" 
Hardware— 200 square ft., 1" x 8" matched. 

3 prs. double-swing butts. 
5 prs. double-strap hinges for doors. 

12 prs. double-strap hinges for windows, curtains, and small doors. 
5 barn-door latches. 








k 




18'" 








agr- 


V 






rf 1 

! 


-S' !> 




-1 






Muslin 


Curtain 




f 




1 —I 


B<* 


*> 


' 1 " 

<0 
ro 

1 


-1 


1 




n 


t-2'5'^-> 


f 


1 



/8' 



Fig. 88a. — End and front views of a part of laying house with two-thirds span roof. 



TWO-THIRDS SPAN LAYING HOUSE 



135 



This material will cost approximately $217.00; for 48 linear 
feet will cost $4.52 per running foot; or $0.28 per sq. ft. for the 
area of 768 sq. ft. Allowing 4 sq. ft. per bird, the cost per bird 
is $1.12. 

Two-thirds Span Laying House. — Figures 88a and 886 show 
drawings of a single section of the long laying house at the Michi- 
gan Agricultural college, each section being eighteen feet square, 




Fig. 886. — Working plans of laying house with two-thirds span roof.— Floor plan of one 

section. 



thus accommodating sixty-five birds. The sills are made of two 
2 x 6 inch pieces and the plates of two 2x4 inch. The front is 
seven feet eight inches high and the back four feet eight inches; 
the studs are seven feet and four feet long, respectively. The roof 
is of combination type, being comparatively steep, having one 
foot rise to every two feet horizontal run. Shingles are used instead 
of prepared roofing, being adapted to the steep roof. No alleyway 
is used in this house, and the pens are connected by a series of 



136 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

doors. This utilizes all the space and compels the attendant to 
mingle with the birds where he is able to study their needs and 
conditions much more thoroughly (Figs. 89 and 90) . 




Fig. SO. — Laying house with two-thirds span roof. A neat house. The cost is greater 
and the front lower than with the shed roof. 

In the centre of the south side is a glass door made by hinging 
two 9-light 9 x 12 inch glass windows. This affords fifteen square 




Fig. 90. — Interior view of house, Fig. 89. showing arrangement of nests and perches. 
(Photo from Michigan Agricultural College.) 

feet of glass to 324 square feet of floor space. The door can be 
opened for cleaning purposes. 

The open-front method of muslin ventilation is used in this 



TWO-THIRDS SPAN LAYING HOUSE 



137 



house. On both sides are muslin frames 3x5 feet, which being four 
feet from the floor do not permit drafts on the birds when open. 
One is opened every day during the winter, but closed at night. 



Floor Plan. 



J I 
1 

1 


J ■- - L 
II II 

II 


i — - 
ii ii i -f 

ii i i 




3 1 




« i -f i 




1 1'{7] l 


;/ 


/ I 


y 


II 1 1 1 


1 1 1 1 1 


i i i i i i ii ii i i i h-n 
















i 






\ 



Cross Section. 







Front View. 



c 






| 










III! 












1 




III 




1 






I 






1 




All 












L 


L_ 




L 


L_ 








UL 










L. 


1 








1 






1 






















Roof 


. 








FINt MESH WIRE FRONT 

hi i 











Fig. 91a.— Half-monitor type of laying house: Working plans. 

The house is lined on all sides and above. This would not be 
advisable in a commercial house. 

The roosts are also set on 2 x 4 inch pieces in the form of a 



138 



PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



frame which is hinged at the back and can be raised for cleaning. It 
is desirable to raise the roosts so as to force lazy hens to the floor. 
The floor is made of cement, and any tendency toward cold 
is eliminated by the liberal use of straw, which in addition compels 
the hen to exercise in her search for feed. Cement floors are cold 
because of dampness. This may be prevented by the use of a layer 
of tar paper in the construction, as already described. 

Frame in processof construction. 




Nearing completion. 




Fig. 916. — Half-monitor type of laying house: Under construction. 

For ease in cleaning, all fixtures are portable, and all nests and 
boxes have sloping tops, thus eliminating the accumulation of 
filth on the internal fixtures. This house is well adapted for 
commercial use. 

A Half -monitor Laying House. — This house has an entire glass 
front in the peak (Figs. 91a and 916). The extension in front is 



PORTABLE LAYING HOUSE 139 

left entirely open two feet above the ground. The opening is 
covered with small-mesh poultry netting, no curtains being pro- 
vided for it. The nests and perches are in the back part of the 
main house, and are protected and separated from the open front 
by a solid board partition extending from the lower part of the 
windows to within two feet of the floor. The windows in the peak 
are equipped with transom sash, so that they may be opened, 
being hinged at the top and opening outward. 

List of Materials. — The following is a list of material required 
for the half -monitor house complete, 20 x 40 feet : 

Foundation, concrete wall as deep as necessary and 8 inches wide — 22 bags 
cement, 2 cubic yards gravel, 4 cubic yards cinders ' 

Sills 12 ps. 2" x 6" x 20' 

4 ps. 2" x 6" x 12' 
4 ps. 2" x 6" x 8' 

Corner and division posts (doubled) 16 ps. 2" x 4" x 5' 

8 ps. 2" x 4" x 9' 
End wall and division studs 6 ps. 2" x 4" x 6' 

12 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 
Side wall studs and long partition 28 ps. 2" x 4" x 5' 

9 ps. 2" x 4" x 9' 

Plates 8 ps. 2" x 4" x 20' 

Girder, sill under windows. . 2 ps. 2" x 4" x 20' 

Rafters 21 ps. 2" x 4" x 14' 

21 ps. 2" x 4" x 10' 

Extra pieces for window work, dropping boards, etc 10 ps. 2" x 4" x 12' 

Supports for dropping boards 12 ps. 2" x 4" x 10' 

Perches 16 ps. 2" x 2" x 10' 

Partitions, nests, and dropping boards 720 sq. ft. ship-lap. 

Roof 1,000 sq. ft. ship-lap. 

Roofing paper 1,000 sq. ft. 

Sash 12, 34" x 34" 

Trimmings dressed white pine 50 linear ft. 1" x 2" 

150 linear ft, l"x3" 
80 linear ft, l"x4 

120 linear ft. I"x6" 

This material will cost approximately $219.50. The house of 
forty linear feet will cost $5.48 per running foot ; or $0.27 per sq. ft. 
for the total area of 800 sq. ft. The cost per bird, allowing 4 sq. ft. 
each, is $1.08, not including labor. 

Portable Laying House. — This house has two curtain openings 
and one large window in front (Figs. 92a and 926) . These provide 
ample sunlight and ventilation. The openings for the curtains are 



140 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 



Plan. 



II ,11 



c ;,rt»i^ 



Sills 



rry 



11 H , I 



tr.-.-.r.-K-x^. 



EE : 



2-'-o" Cen+er 



^^ 



Front Elevation. 



^ 



^ 




4- * fe Skid 



Framing of Front. 



-£-7i- 



^ 



Fig. 92a. — Portable laying house: Working plans. 



PORTABLE LAYING HOUSE 



141 



covered with netting, the curtains being so arranged as to swing up 
to the rafters. The front wall directly below the window and one 
of the curtains is made to open and admit sunlight directly on the 
floor near the front wall. The door is hinged at the top and pro- 
vided with a hook to hold it up, this opening also being covered 
with poultry netting. The roosts and dropping boards are placed 
along the back wall about two feet from the floor. The nests are 




Fig. 926. — Portable colony laying house completed. 

placed on the continuation of the dropping board, the roosts and 
nests filling the back portion. 

List of Materials. — The following materials (lumber chiefly 
yellow and white pine) will cost approximately $60.00 : 

Skids 2 ps. 4" x 6" x 14' 

Sills 7 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 

Studs 9 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 

2 ps. 2" x 4" x 7' 
7 or 9 ps. 2" x 4" x 6' 
Girders and plates 5 ps. 2" x 4" x 12' 

2 ps. 2" x 4" x 8' 

Rafters 7 ps. 2" x 4" x 9' 

Floor 17 ps. 1" x 6" x 12' 

Siding 18 ps. 1" x 6" x 10' 

17 ps. I"x6"xl4' 

Sheathing 21 ps. 1" x 6" x 12' 

Roofing \\i rolls best 3-ply roofing. 

One door 4-panel 2' 8" x 6' 

One window ' ; 12 light 9" x 12" 



142 PRACTICE OF POULTRY-HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

Finish for curtain frames 1 pc. 1 M" x 6" x 12' 

Roosts and nests 2 ps. 2" x 4" x 6' 

6 ps. 2" x 4" x 3' 
2ps. I"x4"xl2' 
Sps. I"xl2"x6' 
2 ps. H" x 12" x 6' 

Miscellaneous 2 ps. %" rod 12' 

2 ps. M" rod 10' 

Hardware 1 '2 pis. 3* wrought steel butts for main door. 

■I ' 2 prs. 4" T hinges for cluck door, curtain frames, and nests. 

I ! £ prs. 6" T lunges for trap door. 

A sash locks. 

1 rim lock. 

1 •_> do/,, screw hooks and eves. 

1 special long hook for trap door. 

25 lbs. 8d. nails. 

8 lbs. 10d. nails. 

20 lbs. 20d. nails. 

20 feet of wire cloth or poultry netting 30 inches wide. 

REVIEW. 

1. How should sloping land be graded for the laying house? 

2. Describe in detail a correct method of laying out a foundation. 
'A. What are the essential points in digging the foundation trench? 

4. How should the forms be made and held in place? 

5. Describe manner of mixing and pouring concrete. 
ii. Enumerate essential points in framing house. 

7. Discuss the standard-unit laying house in detail: (a) Plans; (/>) specifica- 
tions; (c) materials required] (,'/) cost; (c) efficiency. 
S. Discuss the small-unit breeding house, using the same five points. 
'.). Discuss the two-thirds span laying house, in like manner. 

10. Discuss the half-monitor laying house, in like manner. 

11. Discuss the portable laying house, in like manner. 

References. — Farm Poultry-houses, by Davidson and Lippincott, Bulletin 
L32, Iowa Station. Practical Poultry Building, by H. L. Rlanehard, Washing- 
ton Station, Pullet in 4. Poultry-houses, by W. J. Lane, Minnesota Extension, 
Pullet in S. Poultry-houses, Pennsylvania Extension, Circular 8. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

POULTRY FIXTURES. 

In the planning and arrangement of the various appliances 
which are necessary for the proper equipment of a poultry house, 
the following features should be considered, as poor fixtures, im- 
properly designed and located, do not serve their purposes in the pen : 

Simplicity. — All interior fixtures should be of simple design 
and construction, thereby making them more sanitary arid reducing 
labor in caring for the birds. 

Cleanliness. — As many of the appliances as possible should be 
portable, so as to be easily taken from the wall or standard and 
readily cleaned out of doors. By having them movable, there are 
fewer crevices in which to harbor lice and mites. Cleanliness is 
of paramount importance in the laying house. All fixtures should 
be constructed with this idea in view, having as few joints as pos- 
sible, and so designed that they can be taken apart, if necessary, 
to reach all unexposed parts. They should be so made that a 
disinfectant solution, when thoroughly applied, will reach all parts. 

Location. — The house is designed for the birds, the capacity 
being determined largely by the number of square feet of floor 
space; therefore, none of the portable fixtures should be placed 
on the ground, but should be raised above the floor at least a foot 
(Fig. 93), on elevated platforms or hanging on the walls. Atten- 
tion to this one feature will give birds more room for exercise, or 
more birds can be kept in the house, thus reducing the cost per 
bird. In order to economize wall space, in some pens, it is necessary 
to plan carefully the arrangement of the fixtures. 

Perches. — It is the natural habit of all kinds of poultry (not 
including water fowls) to perch or roost at night on elevated places, 
as branches of trees. It is not a good practice to allow mature 
birds, of the heavy breeds, to roost directly on the floor. For the 
heavy Asiatic breeds low perches should be provided, only a foot 
or two above the floor. The natural tendency of birds of the 
lighter breeds is to seek as high roosting places as possible, and 
thus protect themselves from enemies and from cold. 

The perches should be placed on the lowest side or back of the 
house, farthest from the curtain front, as this part of the house is 

143 



144 



POULTRY FIXTURES 



the warmest. By so doing space is utilized which usually is not 
high enough to allow the attendant to work conveniently (Fig. 93). 
Amount of Space Required. — The amount of perch room de- 
pends on the size of the birds. Birds need more roosting space in 
the summer than in the winter, but under general conditions the 
following amount of room would be needed by the various breeds : 
About seven or eight inches of perch room is required by a hen of 
the lighter breeds, such as Leghorns; about eight to nine inches 
for the Plymouth Rocks and others of medium size; and about 
ten or twelve inches for the largest birds, such as Brahmas and 
Cochins. In the winter months they will not occupy all of this 




Fig. 93. — Arrangement of nests, perches, and dropping boards. A, suspended; B and C, 
attached to back wall. 

room, but it allows them sufficient space to gain access to the 
perches and to move about without interfering. 

Materials. — Perches can be made from 2x2 inch, 2x3 inch, 
or 2 x 4 inch scantling, placed either on edge or with the wide 
surface up. There is a great variety of opinion as to which method 
is the best, but it is certain that wide perches do not allow the birds 
to lock themselves securely while sleeping, as nature intended, and 
narrow perches are apt to develop corns. It is well to round the 
two upper corners, doing away with the extremely sharp edges. 
Dressed lumber should be used, as unplaned material is often very 
rough, furnishing places for red mites. 

Construction of Perches. — The perches should always be easily 
removed, either as a unit or separately. There are a number of 
different ways of supporting them. When narrow pens are used 
they are sawed the exact width of the pen and allowed to set in 
notches cut in strips, the strips being fastened to the inside wall. 
For wider pens the roosts must be provided with supports in the 
centre. When 2x2 inch scantling is used, they should be sup- 




ROOSTING CLOSETS 145 

ported every five feet; when 2x4 inch is used every eight feet will 
do. If dropping boards are used, the perches are usually placed 
above them at a distance of about eight inches, or high enough 
so that a hoe can be freely manipulated under them when cleaning. 
A very simple and efficient method of constructing perches is 
to make them as one unit, hinging the unit to the back wall and 
supporting it by two or more legs at the front. Such a perch can 
be raised when cleaning, and also it may be hooked to the ceiling 
during winter days, thus keeping the birds off their perches and 
on the floor where they will be working. In determining the exact 
height of the perch, the character of the birds is to be considered. 
The light, active birds fly 
high with no injury to them- 
selves, and perches for Leg- 
horns can safely be four feet 
above the ground; for the 
Cochins and Langshans one 
or two feet is usually high 
enough. The roosts in any 

One rOOm mUSt always be Fig. 94.— Roosting closets to prevent drafts 

level with each Other The at n '6ht. Curtains may be placed in front of 
. . -n 1 these in cold climates. 

height of the perch will be 

determined in part by the character of the floor. With a soft 
floor provided with an abundance of litter, there is less danger of 
birds injuring their feet when jumping from the roosts. 

There are a number of patented roosts and supports on the market, 
made of iron and other material ; the general advantage claimed for 
these is that they are proof against mites and lice, but they have 
little if any advantage over well-constructed, portable wood roosts. 

Roosting Closets. — When the roosts are placed at the back of 
the building, it is often the practice to build solid partitions be- 
tween the pens. In long houses this partition may be constructed 
every twelve or fifteen feet at right angles to the perches and back 
wall, extending two feet beyond the front perch. This divides 
the roosting area into separate compartments, which are often 
called " closets " (Fig. 94). These may be still more securely 
enclosed by providing muslin drop curtains in front. Such roosting 
closets are used in large pens where but few birds are kept; also 
where the more delicate, active breedfi are housed in extremely cold, 
unprotected locations. The use of the muslin curtain in front of 
the roosts should be limited in mild weather, as it is possible to keep 
10 



146 POULTRY FIXTURES 

the birds too closely confined. They may not be supplied with 
enough fresh air; this may result in getting them into a tender con- 
dition, making them liable to have frozen combs and winter colds. 

Dropping Boards. — In order to provide some means of more 
easily removing the droppings and keeping the house in a better 
sanitary condition, dropping boards or platforms under the perches 
have come into quite general use. This facilitates the saving of 
large amounts of manure for fertilizer purposes. The dropping 
boards are placed under the perches, usually at a distance of eight 
to ten inches, being supported from the floor by legs or hung from 
the ceiling by rods or wires. In narrow pens they rest on cleats 
nailed to the walls. In small houses dropping boards are often 
made movable so that they will slide similar to a drawer. They 
should be constructed of matched lumber, having a perfectly 
smooth upper surface. It is best to have the boards run perpen- 
dicular to the perches, or in the direction which it is necessary for 
the attendant to work when cleaning them with a hoe. It is neces- 
sary to clean them, under general conditions, about twice a week. 
It is possible by the use of absorbents, such as land plaster or dry 
loam, to keep the droppings dry. This will allow of less frequent 
cleaning. Eliminating the dropping boards by the substitution of 
an absorbing material, such as peat moss, on the floor under the 
perches is possible. This reduces labor ; but also reduces the floor 
space, which more than balances the labor item. 

Nests. — All breeds of poultry have by nature a nesting habit, 
and they desire to find some secluded spot, usually darkened, for 
their eggs. For this reason, nests should be provided which will 
offer the most inducement to the birds to lay in one place; thus 
the danger of losing the eggs will be prevented. Clean eggs will 
be insured and much labor saved in their collection if good nests 
are provided. Even when allowed free range the birds will usually 
come back to their roosting place to lay if there are suitable nests. 
It is a natural habit for hens to make their own nests, yet the more 
domesticated they become the less pronounced is this habit. Some 
prefer to lay in nests with other hens. "Nest eggs are useful because 
they induce the birds to lay in the same place each time, and tend 
to cause a greater distribution of eggs and less crowding in the nests. 

Nest Construction. — (1) Nests should be darkened, so that the 
birds feel secluded and protected. After laying they do not remain 
so long on the nests and break the eggs. If eggs are broken in 
light nests, it may result in developing the habit of egg eating. 



TYPES OF NESTS 



147 



(2) Nests should be so constructed that it is easy for the atten- 
dant to see and remove any eggs in them, 

(3) They should be constructed large enough for the birds to sit on 
the nest; 12 x 14 inches may be required for the large breeds and 8x 
12 inches or 10x12 inches for the light breeds. If nests are too large, 
eggs are broken by two or more hens crowding into them at once. 

(4) Nests should be movable, so that they can be easily taken 
out and thoroughly cleaned. The nesting material is the first 
place in the house where mites and lice are usually found, and if 
they can be controlled there, freedom from such enemies is more 
easily maintained. 




Fig. 95. 



-Four ways of locating nests, — end boards are removed to show construction. 
Eggs are taken out from the covered nests by raising the door, d. 



Number of Nests. — There should be nests enough so that the 
hens will not be compelled to crowd. Number is determined by 
the size of the flock in the spring or during the heavy laying season. 
A safe number is one nest to every three or four layers. 

Materials Used. — Wood smoothly planed is usually used in the 
construction of the nests. They should be securely built. Boards 
seven-eighths inch thick and ten or twelve inches wide, with 
square edges, can be made into very good nests. Soap-boxes, 
nail-kegs, lemon-crates, and egg-cases are often made over into 
good poultry nests, but they are less sanitary than well-made nests. 

Types of Nests. — There are a great number of types and designs 
in nest construction, each having advantages and disadvantages. 
Figure 95 shows some of these types. 



148 



POULTRY FIXTURES 



Location of Nests. — The exact location of the nests depends 
upon: (1) The plan of the house; (2) the amount of space avail- 
able; (3) the character of the birds; and (4) the type of nest. 
The most economical place is to have them suspended under the 
dropping board and arranged so that the birds enter them from 
the back ; a hinged door on the front allows the eggs to be removed 
easily. Space is utilized which otherwise could not be used. A 




Fig. 96.- 



-Dark wall nests, arranged in 
tiers. 



Fig. 97. — Coop for broody hens. Hens 
are confined until "cured." 



great many pens of the long type do not provide enough wall room 
for all the nests. Where large numbers of nests are necessary, it 
is sometimes advisable to place them two or three tiers high 
(Fig. 96). 

Advantages of Trap Nests. — Trap nests are recommended for 
use by poultrymen who desire to get individual laying records and 
special pedigrees of their stock. Trap nests aid in picking out 
the best producers and elimination of the poor layers. They aid 
in the detection and isolation of diseases, such as white diarrhoea. 



ADVANTAGES OF TRAP NESTS 



149 





They are used on many of the large poultry plants where special 
breeding pens are kept, and then only during the winter and early 
spring months. Breeders of fancy poultry find much benefit from 
their use, as they are able 
to study the qualities trans- 
mitted by each individual. It 
is possible to make matings 
with a greater degree of cer- 
tainty as to the results which 
will be obtained. Increased 
profits come largely through 
the keeping of better birds; 
this means the selection and 
breeding from the best. It is 
not practicable to use trap nests 
for the average laying flock. 

If trap nests are used, they 
must be attended to regularly 
and the birds let out at fre- 
quent intervals. A complete 
round should be made at least 
every hour, starting at nine 
o'clock in the morning, until 
the laying is over for the day. 
If this is not done, the vital- 
ity and usefulness of the 
birds confined is greatly im- 
paired, and their produc- 
tion is sure to decrease. 
Much labor is thus re- 
quired, but trained persons 
are not necessary. 

Designs of Trap Nests. 
— There are a great many 
types of nests made, only 
a few of which work well. 
In practically all types the 
nests are so constructed that when the hen enters she releases a 
spring or trigger which allows the door to close behind her, and 
she cannot leave the nest nor can another hen enter until the 
attendant has removed her and reset the trap. 



B. 

Fig. 98. — Pearl or Maine State trap nest, 
side removed. A, open; B, sprung or shut. The 
weight of the hen on the hinged bottom keeps 
the door closed. (Photo by Raymond Pearl.) 




Fig. 99. — Improved Connecticut trap nest. 
Centre nest open; the hen on entering raises the 
door and allows the trigger to fall; this locks the 
door shut until the attendant comes. (Tops re- 
moved for photographing.) 



150 



POULTRY FIXTURES 



The following points should be considered in the design and 
construction of a trap nest. It should be large and roomy, and 
of considerable depth, so that the egg will not be trampled upon 
while the hen is waiting to be removed. About twelve inches wide, 
eighteen to twenty inches deep, and fourteen inches high is a very 
efficient size. The trap arrangement should be so delicate that 
the bird cannot enter without causing the door to lock automatic- 
ally and keep her from leaving the nest and prevent another hen 




Fig. 100. — The Cornell trap nest. When entering, the hen steps on the wooden cleat 
which closes the door behind her. A latch at the top holds it closed. The fourth nest shows 
attendant removing the hen. (Courtesy J. E. Rice.) 



from entering. It must be so constructed that only one bird can 
enter the nest at one time. The trap arrangement should be so 
located that it will remain free from obstruction, such as nesting 
material, which would hinder its proper working. Simplicity in 
the manner of trapping is to be desired; the fewer working parts 
the better, as they are less liable to get out of order. Figures 98, 
99, and 100 show some efficient types of trap nests. 

Broody Coops. — Every pen should be provided with an avail- 
able coop for the isolation of broody hens (Fig. 97). A very de- 



ALLEYS 151 

sirable place for such a coop is at one end of the perches, on a 
level with the dropping board. A slatted bottom is essential, as 
it keeps broody hens from squatting on the floor. The sides of the 
coop may be constructed of slats or one-inch-mesh wire. They 
should be so made as to admit of easy cleaning, a door being pro- 
vided which will allow the birds to be easily removed or placed 
in the coop. 

Such a coop may also be used for the housing of surplus cockerels 
when the alternating system is used. It is a desirable and necessary 
adjunct in the equipment of the laying house. 

Dust Boxes. — Large, deep, dust boxes are essential in the lay- 
ing pens. A dust bath is as necessary for the health of birds as 
a water bath is to the health of many other animals. By its use 
the bird is enabled to rid itself of lice and to remove all scales and 
dirt from the skin. It should be deep enough to hold about six 
inches of dusting material, and is usually located in a corner of 
the pen, elevated above the floor so that it will not get filled with 
straw or other litter from the floor. If flat-topped nests are used, 
the dust box may be placed above the nests. In some cases it is 
placed at one end of the dropping board. Some authorities rec- 
ommend the enclosing of the dust box, allowing the birds to enter 
and leave through a small opening. It is claimed that the inside 
of the house is kept cleaner and more free from dust, which may 
have a detrimental effect upon the birds. Practice hardly warrants 
the enclosing of the box, as the birds usually come from the box 
to shake their feathers, bringing the dust with them. 

For dusting, the substance should be very light, fine, and dry. 
The finer the better. Being designed to kill lice, it must be fine 
enough to fill the breathing pores of these parasites. Sandy loam 
mixed with road dust makes a fairly good dusting material. If 
sand or road dust is used, sifted coal ashes aid in making it finer. 
A good dusting material is composed of equal parts of loam, sand, 
and sifted coal ashes, with about three per cent by weight of 
kerosene oil, thoroughly mixed together. The dust box should be 
placed where sunlight can shine into it, and must be kept free 
from all litter and other foreign matter. 

Alleys, or hall-ways, are often constructed in the rear of long 
poultry houses with the idea of facilitating the work of caring for 
the birds. Each separate pen opens from the alley. If extremely 
long houses are divided into a large number of small pens, the alleys 
have many advantages. It is sometimes practicable to construct a 



152 POULTRY FIXTURES 

house of this type and have the partition between the pen and the 
alley so arranged that all the work of cleaning the dropping boards, 
collecting the eggs, watering, and feeding can be done directly 
from the alley, but it is doubtful if the work can always be done 
with the greatest degree of efficiency in this manner. 

There are a number of disadvantages in having an alley in the 
house. The alley, being at the rear, requires the building to have 
a high roof. The house is much colder, as there is from one-fifth 
to one-seventh additional head room to heat up and no extra in- 
crease in floor space. The roosting quarters are not in a desirable 
location, the centre often being drafty, and no means is provided 
for conserving the heat from the bodies of the fowls. Such houses 
cost more to construct compared with the number of birds. They 
are always more or less drafty, as the long, narrow alley in the back 
offers an unobstructed passage for air to sweep from one end of the 
building to the other. The use of cloth doors at intervals across 
the alley may be used to check the draft. The house with an alley 
is not desirable except in the case of a long exhibition house for 
display purposes, brooder houses, or fattening sheds, in which 
case the alley should be in the centre if the house is wide enough. 
In every case the alley should be wide enough to allow an attendant 
to pass easily with a load in each hand. 

Feed troughs are used principally for the feeding of wet mashes, 
chopped vegetables, or sprouted oats. They should not be used for 
the feeding of ground or whole grains, for a large proportion of the 
ground feed is wasted, and the grain is better fed in litter so the 
birds are compelled to exercise sufficiently while eating. There 
are a number of different types of construction (Fig. 101); the idea 
should be to make them deep enough to hold the feed and to pro- 
tect the contents from contamination and waste by keeping the 
birds from standing in them while eating. 

The best material for the construction of feed troughs is planed 
lumber one inch thick and from eight to twelve inches wide. All 
joints should be made tight, and they should be so constructed 
that they cannot be overturned by the birds. It is better to have a 
number of small troughs from six to twelve inches wide and two to 
five feet long than one large one, as they can be readily carried from 
place to place and are more easily cleaned. The birds can shift from 
place to place, thus allowing the weak ones a better chance at the 
feed. They should be made so that they can be easily cleaned; 
this is necessary, as they are used for material which sours easily. 



SELF-FEEDING HOPPERS 



153 



Self-feeding Hoppers. — A great number of styles and types of 
feed hoppers are used for the feeding of dry ground grains and whole 
grains. They are used more generally for the feeding of dry mash 
kept before the birds all the time. Where they have been used in 
the feeding of whole grains, it is doubtful if they have proved 
efficient except in the case of growing chicks on free range. The 




Fig. 101. — Common types of feeding troughs, a, Open V-shaped; b, square form; 
c, V-shaped, covered. 

hoppers designed to feed whole grain automatically do not induce 
sufficient exercise. They supply grain too liberally unless they 
become clogged. 

The pens should be visited often enough to supply the grain 
ration in' litter. 

A successful dry-mash hopper should possess the following 
features: 

It should be of large capacity, thus economizing labor in filling. 
A hopper holding from two to four bushels will not require filling 



154 



POULTRY FIXTURES 



oftener than once every two or three weeks, depending, of course, 
upon the number of birds having access to it. 

To be labor saving it should be automatic, in that it is self- 
feeding; as the birds eat the mash away from the opening, other 
material should gradually come down. While this feature is 
attempted, in a great many types of hoppers the mash is found to 
clog, and it requires considerable attention to keep the mash feed- 
ing properly. Hoppers with small throats and extensive taper to 
the sides have a tendency to clog in this manner. 

The feeding surface should be provided with a hinged cover, so 
arranged as to admit of closing it when desired. It is best to leave 

the hopper open only a few 
hours of the day, in the case 
of fat hens of the heavier 
breeds. It is often well to 
close the hopper at night to 
keep out rats. 

It is important that the 
hopper should be nonwasting. 
The practice of feeding dry 
mash in self-feeding hoppers 
is usually one of the most 
efficient feeding methods, pro- 
vided the right hoppers are 
used; but if the birds while 
eating waste the mash it is a 
most inefficient practice. 

The hopper should be easily 
and quickly filled. 
It should be long enough so that a number of birds can feed 
from it at one time. 

The top should slope to prevent birds from roosting upon it. 
Types of Hoppers. — There are a great many types of commer- 
cial hoppers for sale by leading poultry-supply houses, represent- 
ing a great variation in efficiency and cost. Most of these com- 
mercial hoppers are made of metal and are of limited capacity, 
and there are very few types which fulfil all the requirements out- 
lined above. The average poultryman can construct a hopper of 
wood at a low cost which will meet all the requirements. Figure 
102 shows a good type of home-made hopper for the laying house. 
In constructing a hopper, the size should be determined by the 




Fig. 102 

feedin, 



—A home-made dry-mash hopper, 

from both sides, for large flocks. 



DRINKING VESSELS 



155 



number of birds that are to feed from it. A hopper holding five 
bushels is much more efficient and more practical than one holding 
one-half bushel. Tongue-and-groove lumber without beads is a 
suitable material for the construction of a hopper. 

Drinking Vessels. — There are two distinct types of drinking 
utensils, — open and closed. The open vessels are those from which 
the birds drink directly at the surface, and as the water is consumed 
the surface is constantly lowered. The closed form of drinking 
utensil is usually of the " vacuum "type. In deciding on what 
type to use, the following features should be considered : 

(1) Drinking water should be kept clean and free from dust 
and litter; therefore, a covered drinking vessel is better. (2) The 
vessel should also be of a type 
quickly filled or emptied, and be 
easily and quickly cleaned. (3) It 
should be so constructed as to pre- 
vent the birds from roosting on it 
and polluting the water with their 
droppings. (4) It should be of 
relatively large capacity, for a 
larger volume of water remains 
cool longer in the summer and 
does not freeze so quickly in the 
winter as in the case of an ex- 
tremely small volume. 

Location of Fountain. — If pos- 
sible the drinking fountain should 
be raised above the floor. A good 
place is a small shelf or platform 
raised a foot or more above the 

floor, considerably larger than the fountain, so that the birds will 
have room enough to stand on the platform when drinking. In 
the summer it should be located, if possible, where no sun will 
shine directly upon it and warm it up quickly. In the winter it is 
better to have the fountain in as sunny a place as possible. 

Types of Drinking Vessels. — Two types of drinking vessels 
have been mentioned. The open drinking utensils are the ones 
generally found on poultry farms. They usually consist of a pail 
or tub, kept as full as possible of fresh water, located on the floor 
or on an elevated platform. When it is desired to provide an 
abundance of fresh water in extremely warm weather, the open 




Fig. 103. — A practical drinking foun- 
tain. A ten-quart galvanized fire pail 
inverted in a milk pan with three-inch rim. 



156 



POULTRY FIXTURES 



V-shaped troughs are sometimes used, but they must be made 
water-tight. Earthen pans or vessels are sometimes used, and if 
glazed and kept clean they make very economical open vessels. 

The " vacuum " fountain consists of a large chamber filled 
with water having only one outlet, which is in the lower part of 
the chamber, communicating directly with a shallow pan or trough, 
the edges of which are above the opening in the water chamber. 

When the vessel is filled and set 
upright, and the water has filled 
the saucer or cup, air is prevented 
from entering the water chamber, 
and a closed chamber called a 
" vacuum " is formed on the top. 
Outside air pressure holds the 
water in. 

From among the various com- 
mercial types of drinking vessels 
which are found on the market a 
number of practical ones can be 
selected. In selecting a commer- 
cial drinking fountain it is very 
desirable to secure one which allows 
of separating the water chamber 
from the drinking pan, as more 
easily and perfectly cleaned and 
more easily filled. These commer- 
cial drinking fountains can be 
secured in all sizes from that re- 
quired for baby chicks to those for 
adult flocks. 

The usual commercial fountains 
are not large enough for a large number of hens and they 
are rather expensive. Figure 103 shows a practical device which 
answers all the requirements outlined. 

Grit and Shell Boxes. — The most, economical way to feed grit 
and shell is to keep it before the birds all the time. There are 
hoppers constructed for that purpose (Fig. 104). In this way the 
birds can have constant access to this material, and the cost of 
feeding it is reduced to a minimum. These hoppers resemble in 
style a large dry-mash hopper, but are usually much smaller. A 
very common practice, and a very good one, is to partition off 




Fig. 104. — A hopper for grit and shell. 
These materials are usually fed separately 
— not with dry mash. 



GRIT AND SHELL BOXES 157 

one or more small compartments in the large dry -mash hopper for 
the feeding of grit and shell. These materials are much heavier 




Fig. 105. — A group of commercial feeding appliances. 

than ground grains, and will feed through small openings without 
clogging, and there is much less waste by the birds (Fig. 105). 

REVIEW. 

1. Give five essential features to be considered in planning poultry fixtures. 

2. How much perch room is required per bird? Give variation. 

3. Discuss location and construction of perches. 

4. What are roosting closets, and what are their advantages? 

5. Give the points in the construction of dropping boards. 

6. Give the principles of nest construction. 

7. Tell of the number of nests required and common types used. 

8. What are the essential points of a good trap nest? 

9. Describe the following nests: (a) Cornell; (b) Pearl; (c) Connecticut. 

10. What are the possible uses of "broody coops," and how are they made? 

11. Why are dust boxes needed? 

12. Give a good dusting material. 

13. Describe a house with alley; give advantages and disadvantages. 

14. What are the uses of open feeding troughs? 

15. Give points in their construction. 

16. Give the necessary features of a good dry-mash hopper. 

17. Describe an efficient home-made hopper. 

18. Describe two types of fountains. 

19. What are the desirable points in a drinking fountain? 

20. Why have grit and shell hoppers? 

References. — Labor-saving Poultry Appliances, by Rice and Rogers, 
Cornell Bulletin 284. New Poultry Appliances, by Rice and Lawry, Cornell 
Bulletin 248. Hoppers for Poultry Feeding, in United States Farmers' Bul- 
letin 316. Water Pan for Poultry, in United States Farmers' Bulletin 317. 
Poultry-house Plans and Appliances, by C. A. Rogers, Cornell Circular No. 1. 



CHAPTER IX. 
YARDS AND YARDING. 

One of the vital questions for each poultryman to answer is: 
Will it be necessary to provide yards for the birds or will it be 
possible to give them free range? Yards, at their best, arc a dis- 
advantage in successful poultry keeping, as poultry do better 
under all conditions if given an abundance of range. On small 
intensive plants or where crops would be injured by the birds, 
close yarding is necessary. 

. On commercial plants the restriction or confinement of the 
stock to a small enclosure should be avoided if possible. If a 
number of breeds are kept for fancy purposes, it is necessary to 
insure a complete separation of the flocks and fencing is essential. 

Size. — "When fences are required, the area enclosed should be 
made as large as possible. The amount of yard room required 
will vary with the breed kept, and the shape of the yard, the char- 
acter of the soil, and whether or not the yard is to be kept perma- 
nently in sod. The light, active breeds are more destructive, and 
also require greater area when kept in confinement. The heavy 
meat breeds require only a small area enclosed with a low fence. 

Fertile soils, capable of producing good crops, will provide 
forage material in abundance. This wilL require a smaller area 
than for yards on poor and unproductive soils. It is best to keep 
a permanent yard in sod, thus providing green feed with a minimum 
amount of labor. If the yards are small and the crops are fre- 
quently planted, much labor and seed are required in maintaining 
them. 

With permanent sod yards in good condition, one hundred to 
one hundred and fifty square feet per bird will provide ample room, 
and the sod will remain permanent except near the house. If 
green feed is to be grown in alternate yards, from fifty to seventy- . 
five square feet or more should be allowed each bird. Enough yard 
room should be provided to insure a constant supply of forage 
material. If this is done, the birds will rarely attempt to fly over 
fences in search of other feed. 

When temporary yards are used and changed occasionally, 
much smaller areas than given above will do, if crops on them are 
158 



ADVANTAGES OF DOUBLE YARDING 



159 



rotated, or if rest periods of a year or more are allowed between 
the periods of use. 

The Shape of the Yard Influences the Cost. — It is much cheaper 
to fence a square yard than a rectangular one, as it requires less 
fencing material and less labor. Long yards insure a more per- 
manent growth, but square yards are more easily worked and 
seeded. Triangular yards with acute angles in the corners should 
be avoided, as they form a catch-all for leaves and rubbish and 
do not readily allow of plowing nor cultivation. Long and narrow 
yards provide a larger amount of green feed than the same area 








Fio 106. — A good method of double yarding and crop rotation. The corn provides shade 
while the fruit trees are growing. (Photo from Purdue University.) 



in the form of a square, as the birds stay near the house and do 
not feed at a distance until that near at hand is consumed. 

Advantages of Double Yarding. — A system of double yarding 
is often provided when it is impossible to give birds free range. 
When double yards are used, a more nearly constant supply of 
green feed can be grown (Fig. 106). The double yards allow a 
change in rotation of the birds from one yard to another. They 
are thus kept clean and free from filth, which is important on heavjr 
soil. Even with small runs it will be found profitable to divide 
them in half and rotate, the birds feeding on one part and then on 
the other. Single yarding may require the feeding of green feed 
from outside sources, which entails extra labor in harvesting and 
feeding it to them. This feature is eliminated by double yarding. 



160 YARDS AND YARDING 

Crops to Use. — The following system of crop rotation has been 
found to work out very satisfactorily where a double yard is used 
for one pen: 

Date. Yard A. Yard B. 

March to April 30 Peas and oats Feeding 

April 30 to May 25 Feeding Peas and barley 

May 25 to June 15 Dwarf Essex, rape Feeding 

June 15 to July 10 Feeding Buckwheat and oats 

July 10 to August 1 Buckwheat Feeding 

August 1 to August 20 Feeding Cow peas and millet 

August 20 to September 20.. .Rye, vetch, clover Feeding 

September 20 to December 1 . Feeding Rye and vetch 

The dates mentioned are for the latitude of Philadelphia and 
will vary slightly with location, but the crops mentioned will grow 
well in most parts of the country. The birds should not be allowed 
to feed on any crop until it is from four to six inches tall; if allowed 
on the crop too soon it will not last so long. 

In following the above scheme, the rye and vetch which were 
seeded in yard B about September 20 should be allowed to grow 
until planting time in the spring: they will then furnish green feed 
until the spring-planted crops are ready. 

It is not necessary to plow the yards for each planting. Two 
plowings, spring and fall, are sufficient on most soils. A cultivator 
will serve for preparing the ground, and a smoothing harrow for 
covering the seed when sown broadcast. 

The average cost of growing and feeding succulent green feed 
by the above system was found by actual experiment to be only 
five cents per hundred pounds. The feed grown on outside land 
and carried to the birds costs eleven cents per one hundred 
•pounds. 

Methods of Double Yarding. — There are three general plans 
for constructing double yards (Fig. 107). 1. On many poultry 
plants where the semi-community system is used it is best to pro- 
vide two front or two back yards. The large single yard which is 
commonly found may be divided, and will give an abundance of 
room for the growing of crops. 

2. On extensive plants where long houses are used, it may be 
possible to have front and back yards, planning the rotation so 
that in fall and winter the birds wilbbe ranging in the front yards 
while a crop is growing in the back yards for use in early spring. 
During the summer both yards should be rotated as often as 
possible. 



POSTS 



161 



3. When it is impossible to provide rear yards with the inten- 
sive long house, the following method of providing green forage at 
the New Jersey Station is productive. The term applied to this 
system is the " double unit " feeding yard. All pens, regardless 
of size, have exercise yards which are plowed only once or twice 
during a season, and they are usually bare. Communicating with 
each pair of these exercise yards is a larger feeding and grazing 
yard in which green crops are grown, the birds being allowed 
access to these yards on alternate days. It is not as good a system 
as regular double yards, yet it enables the 
keeper to supply green feed to the birds in 
the most economical form. 

Posts.— Light wooden posts are usually 
available, and will answer very well for poultry 
fences. The size of the posts used will depend 
upon the kind of wood and height of fence. 



a 




X 


HOUSE 


b 





IT 


iioasE 


a 


a 


b 



a 


m 


HozrsE 




/ 


b 




\ 



Fig. 107. — Three methods of arranging double yards with reference to the houses. I, 
Front and back yard; II, a, exercise yards; b, feeding yard; III, double yards at the front 
and side of each compartment of the house. 



Red cedar is very durable, and the cost, in regions where it grows 
naturally, should not be prohibitive. A good red-cedar post should 
be at least ten feet long and not smaller than three inches at the 
small end. Chestnut, locust, and other hard woods which have 
natural rot-resisting qualities are good. 

It has been found profitable to dip the lower part of the post 
in tar, letting the tarred portion extend about six inches above 
the ground line. The charring of that portion, by burning over a 
slow fire, also has a preservative effect. The bark should not be 
allowed to remain on the post below or above the ground line, as 
water accumulates and hastens rotting. Where natural round 
posts are not available, sawed timber may be used, 4x4 inches 
11 



162 



YARDS AND YARDING 



and 3x4 inches being suitable sizes. Some preservative should 
always be applied below the ground; and even with proper treat- 
ment sawed hemlock and yellow pine last only about two-thirds 
as long as good cedar posts. Where prices of wooden posts are 
prohibitive, cement may be economically used (Fig. 108). 

It is sometimes desired to have a neat and attractive fence 
regardless of expense. Iron posts may then be used; either round 
iron piping or U-shaped iron, the latter being more expensive. 
When iron is used, it is well to set the posts in concrete to insure 
stability. The poultry netting should be fastened to the posts by 
means of small, twisted wire. A very cheap and attractive fence 



7/n. 



,fi/e/2.Cofper Wins 




Fig. 10S. — Forms for making concrete fence posts. 



can bs made by using one and one-quarter inch, second-hand iron 
pipes, setting them in small holes two feet deep filled with poured 
concrete. The wire can be attached bj r means of notches or holes 
bored through the pipe before it is set. Small wooden knobs can 
be placed on top of the pipes to give a finished effect. 

Manner of Setting Posts. — Care should be taken in setting posts 
to have them in true lines. Before starting to dig the holes, the 
exact location should be marked with a stake, to insure a straight, 
neat, and attractive appearance when complete. The distance 
between them for the average poultry fence should be about twelve 
feet. The distance at corners near gates, or where bracing must 
be used, should be ten feet. The holes should be dug about two 



FENCING MATERIAL 



163 



and one-half feet deep, and considerably larger than the diameter 
of the posts to allow some movement for alignment, and to allow 
of tamping the soil thoroughly when the holes are being filled. If 
wooden posts are used, it is very desirable to fill the bottom of the 
hole with crushed stone, cinders, or coarse gravel, to give better 
drainage, thus increasing the life of the post by drawing the moist- 
ure away from it. When rilling the post hole, the post should be 
held in line and the dirt tamped securely from the very bottom of 
the hole to the top to insure permanence and rigidity from the start. 
When long stretches of wire are used it is necessary to securely 
brace the corner posts and all points where the greatest pull occurs. 




Fig. 109. — Manner of bracing a corner fence post (a). The pull is in the direction of the 
arrow. The cleats on the bottom of the corner post prevent its turning or twisting. 



They should be braced below ground to prevent twisting, and above 
ground to prevent leaning. Figure 109 shows this construction. 

Fencing Material. — The most common material used for poul- 
try fences is wire netting with hexagonal or octagonal meshes of 
different widths. It is sold under various trade names. In pur- 
chasing poultry netting be sure that it is properly galvanized; 
preferably the wire should be galvanized before and after weaving, 
so it will not rust out at the joints so quickly. This netting comes 
in various sizes of mesh from three-quarters of an inch up to three 
inches. The two-inch mesh is desirable for adult birds and the 
three-quarter inch for baby chicks. 



164 YARDS AND YARDING 

The height of the fence will be determined by the number and 
type of birds to be kept and the area of the range. Under most 
conditions, even with the active breeds an eight-foot fence is the 
limit to which it is profitable to go, for a bird that will fly over an 
eight-foot fence will just as easily fly over a twelve-foot one. When 
it is desired to enclose a large field, a five-foot fence is usually 
high enough. When building poultry fences that are six feet or 
more in height, it is a good practice to stretch two lengths of poultry 
netting, one above the other, using three-foot or four-foot widths, 
according to the height desired. The middle selvage edges should 
be twisted together, after the lower one is firmly stretched and 
secured in place. Such a fence, when complete, looks neater, can 
be stretched better, and is more efficient than if made of one strand 
of six-foot wire. 

Where small chicks are to be confined, or on ranges for growing 
stock, it may be desirable to use one width of small-mesh wire at 
the bottom. This will have a tendency to keep out rats, skunks, 
and weasels, as well as confine the chicks when put on range at 
an early age. In small yards in front of long houses where small 
flocks are kept, each with different males, it is well to use small- 
mesh wire to the height at least of two feet above the ground. This 
prevents the male birds from injury in fighting. 

There are two methods of fastening the poultry fence to the 
ground: (1) Stapling it to a base board; (2) burying the edge in 
the ground. Stretch the wire with one edge level with the ground; 
then nail a base board to the posts, setting it slightly in the ground. 
The wire and board are lapped a little and the selvage edge of the 
poultry netting is stapled to the board. It is good practice, where 
many males are kept in adjacent pens, to use base boards to a 
height of thirty inches, placing them half an inch apart, with 
poultry netting above them. This prevents the male birds from 
injuring themselves or each other, which is important if they are 
highly prized birds or to be used for show purposes. 

Another plan is to place the lower edge of the wire three or 
four inches in the ground (Fig. 110). This is done by plowing a 
shallow furrow along the line before the wire is stretched in place. 
Nail the bottom selvage to the posts about four inches below the 
ground line. Before filling the trench it is desirable to drive a 
forked stake in the ground about midway between the posts, hold- 
ing the wire in place. When the trench is filled, this gives the fence 
a neat and attractive appearance and does not allow enemies to 



GATES 



165 



burrow under it, nor does it allow the birds to work under it, as is 
possible under a base board. 

Where small yards are necessary, it is sometimes better to 
build complete wooden fences; on the exposed side of the yard 
they may serve as windbreaks. Such a fence must be built very 
high, as birds will more easily fly over a wooden fence than a wire 
one. They can readily see the top and have a place to light upon. 
Fences built of narrow slats or pickets are occasionally used, but 




TWO INCH MESH WIRE 



ONE INCH MESH WIRE 



GROUND LINE 






J 




Fig. 110. — A common type of fence construction, . n, Manner of anchoring wire under 
ground; 6, wire buried a few inches under ground. 

the cost is usually prohibitive and the appearance is no better than 
a well-built wire fence. 

Best Construction.— One of the best and cheapest poultry 
fences that it is possible to build is approximately seven feet high; 
with cedar posts, twelve feet apart; with two strips of poultry 
netting, the first strip of inch-mesh wire three feet wide set four 
inches in the ground, and the second strip of two-inch mesh four 
feet wide. In nailing the wire to the posts care should be taken 
to have the selvage edges the same distance apart on each post. 
If an attempt is made to stretch the wire wider than its natural 
width, it is drawn out of shape and does not make a neat fence. 

Gates. — The gate problem is one of the most perplexing for 
the poultryman; for, at best, gates are a necessary evil. They are 
expensive to construct, and it takes time to open and close them. 
Where double yarding is practised or where the birds are divided 



166 



YARDS AND YARDING 



into small flocks, as in small-unit systems, a large number of gates 
are necessary. In each of these cases, they must be used frequently 
for watering and feeding, and should be located in the natural or 
shortest path of the attendant, so that he can do the work with the 
fewest steps. Where gates are to be placed in the fences, the 
gate posts should be firmly braced as shown in figure 111. 

Construction of Gates. — In the construction of gates, durability 
should be of first consideration. They are constantly subject to 
a large amount of wear, and the more permanently they are made 
the less repair will be necessary. For large gates, 2x3 inch hem- 





Fig. 111. — Ways of bracing gate posts. A, By using next post in line, similar to corner 
bracing; B, by overhead wire, especially useful with narrow gates. 



lock or yellow pine, or other material of equal grade, should be 
used. All joints should be mitered and bolted together with wash- 
ered bolts. Corner braces should be used, and the whole gate 
braced diagonally with round iron. For small gates between com- 
munity pens, 1x4 inch boards can be used, lapping them at the 
corners, and providing a diagonal brace running from the bottom 
of the gate on the hinged side to the top of the gate on the free 
side. This brace board prevents the gate from sagging and adds 
greatly to its rigidity. Figure 112 shows a number of types of 
construction. 

Gates should be large enough to allow an attendant to pass 
through with a load in each hand, and to pass a wheelbarrow 
through when desired; four feet may be about the right width for 



MAINTENANCE 



167 



such purposes. When it is desired to construct wider gates to allow 
a two-horse team to pass through, it is better to have them con- 
structed in two parts, opening in the centre and swinging each way. 
Double strap hinges should be used; T-hinges are apt to pull 
out. Strap hinges will allow of some latitude in lining up the gate 
to make it swing true. The gate should be hung so that when it 
is allowed to swing free it will spring shut. All gates should be 
provided with some method of fastening, such as hooks, latches, 
or springs. Gates should be hung high enough above the ground 




^ >,. 



I 



Fig. 112. — Types of gate construction. A, Best type, 1x6 inch white pine is used; 
B, same material with different bracing; C, corners mortised and bolted, 2x3 inch material 
used. 

to give ample allowance for swinging. It is sometimes well to 
place a 6-inch or 8-inch base board between the ground and the 
bottom of the gate, allowing the gate to hang when shut just clear 
of this board. If wheelbarrows or wagons are to pass through, 
the base board is omitted. 

Maintenance. — Poultry fences constitute a heavy first cost, 
and the depreciation is great. They are a constant item of expense, 
and should be looked after constantly. Any broken hinges or 
hooks, torn wire, rotting posts, or other defects should be imme- 
diately repaired. Torn places in the fence can be easily mended 
by weaving new wire over the opening. In making such repairs 
or when building the fence, care should be used to allow no long 



168 YARDS AND YARDING 

sharp points to project into the yard, as they are apt to injure 
the birds. As the galvanizing on most poultry wire is very short- 
lived, it is found profitable to paint the poultry netting with a 
good coat of oil paint after it has been up a few years or before 
signs of rusting appear. 

REVIEW. 

1. What factors will determine the advisability of yarding or free range? 

2. Give the area of yard necessary. 

3. What is the effect of shape of yard upon the cost and efficiency of feeding? 

4. What is meant by double yarding? 

5. Give a good crop rotation through the season for double yarding. 

6. Enumerate three methods of double 3'arding. 

7. Name and discuss materials used for poultry fence posts. 

8. Describe manner of setting posts. 

9. How should corner posts be braced? 

10. Name and describe materials used for poultry fences. 

1 1 . Tell of two methods of fastening fence to the ground. 

12. Give construction of a desirable poultry fence. 

13. Tell of two methods of bracing gate posts. 

14. Tell how to make a good poultry gate. 

15. What points should be considered in locating poultry gates? 

16. Give importance, and tell how to keep poultry fences in repair. 

References. — Preservation Treatment of Poles, by William H. Kempfer, 
U. S. Forestry Service Bulletin 84. Concrete and Concrete Fence Posts, by 
Bainer and Bonebright, Colorado Bulletin 148. Construction of Concrete 
Fence Posts, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 403. 



. CHAPTER X. 
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING. 

Birds differ in a number of ways from other farm animals, 
especially in digestion and assimilation of the feed and in their 
requirement for maintenance and production. They are charac- 
terized by intense vitality. The transformation of feed in the 
growing animal and the production of eggs in the adult are exceed- 
ingly rapid; their lives are never sluggish. 

Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York (Geneva) Agricultural 
Experiment Station, has compared a Leghorn fowl that weighs 
3^ pounds and lays 200 eggs (weighing 25 pounds) with a Jersey 
cow that weighs 1,000 pounds and gives in a year 7,000 pounds of 
milk containing 14 per cent of solids. He states: 

" If you take the dry matter of the hen and compare it with the dry matter 
of the eggs she lays in a year, there will be 53^ times as much dry matter in 
the eggs as in her whole body. The weight of the dry matter in a cow's body 
will be to the weight of the dry matter in the milk as 1 to 2.9. In other words, 
based upon the dry matter, the hen does twice as well as the cow. I suspect 
that the hen is the most efficient transformer of raw material into the finished 
product that there is on the farm. Her physiological activity is something 
remarkable, so in that particular the hen stands in a class by herself." 

The temperature of the bird's body is high, ranging from 102° to 
110° F. in different species. The energy necessary to keep up this 
high temperature is great, and material of the right kind is in con- 
stant demand to supply it. Birds are characterized by a heavy appe- 
tite, which indicates intensive needs ; this is accompanied by a very 
rapid digestion which must be kept in order and constantly supplied 
with pure feed. The nature of birds of the poultry group is to sub- 
sist largely on seeds. They are therefore classed as granivorous 
(seed-eating) rather than as omnivorous, yet in actual practice the 
feeding of meat to some extent is found advantageous. 

Composition of the Bird's Body. — The great variety of sub- 
stances and compounds constituting the bird's body may be 
grouped under four general headings, — water, ash, protein, and 
fat. Along with the bony skeleton are ligaments, muscles, and 
tendons, which hold the bones together and move them, the skin 
and feathers which cover and protect the body, also all internal 
organs of circulation, digestion, respiration, and reproduction, — 

169 



170 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

all these and more may be regarded as composed primarily of these 
four substances. In the body of the mature hen these are found in 
about the following proportions : Water, 55.8 per cent; ash, 3.8 per 
cent; protein, 21.6 per cent; and fat, 17 per cent (Fig. 113). 

Water. — Usually more than half, and in some birds as much as 
three-fifths, of the weight of the living bird consists of water. This 
water content is greatest in young and lean animals, and decreases as 
they become more mature or fatten. This latter feature is shown in 
the capon or soft roasters, in which the Avater is often as low as 40 
per cent. 

Ash.- — The ash content or mineral matter is that portion of the 
body which is left after the volatile and combustible elements are 
driven off by heat. Ash is found to a limited extent in all parts, and 
it is essential to provide a sufficient amount of this material. The 

Water 55.Q 



Protein 21.6 weight of ash ranges from 3 to 3.8 

mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm per cent of the bird's body. 
J^at 170 Protein. — The term protein is 

used to designate a large group 



Ash 3 8 °^ SUDS t an ces differing from other 

mm components of the body in that 

they contain more sulphur, com- 
Fig. ii3.— Graphic representa- bined usually with about 17 per 
tion of the approximate eomposi- cent f nitrogen. Common exam- 

tion of the bird s body. if • 

pies of protein are the whites of 
eggs, lean meat which has been washed free from fat particles, the 
casein in milk, and the gluten in. wheat flour. Besides the elements 
already named, protein contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
These elements are known as organic substances, as no mineral or 
ash is left after burning in air. Protein is the most important group 
of materials found in the body, as it forms the base of all living 
tissue, largely making up the material called protoplasm, which is 
the substance through which life is manifested. In the body, 
protein is always associated with the ash and water present. 

Fat. — The fourth group of materials found in the tissues of 
all birds represents a reserve value, usually in the form of fat. 
When the feed does not furnish the required supply of nutrients, 
this reserve of surplus fat helps to counteract the deficiency. The 
fatty particles in the normal body act as cushions between the 



NUTRIENTS 171 

various organs, and also form a protecting layer under the skin, 
giving it a plump, full appearance. The proportion of fat in the 
bird's body varies from 15 to 34 per cent, being lowest in the adult 
bird which is emaciated from disease or improper feeding, and 
highest in birds which are well fattened. 

Glycogen. — Another material called glycogen, very similar to 
starch, is stored in relatively small amounts in the organs of a 
healthy animal. This substance resembles fat in that it contains 
neither nitrogen nor sulphur, but is composed entirely of hydrogen, 
oxygen, and carbon, in the same proportion as in starch. It may 
be called animal starch. 

Nutrition is the process by which life is maintained and indi- 
vidual growth is promoted. It controls the wearing away and 
the building up of the body tissues, converts feed into heat and 
energy, and supplies the material for products which are essential 
to normal life. The chief processes of nutrition are digestion, ab- 
sorption, circulation, assimilation, and respiration. 

Nutrients.- — Materials in feeds, as seen in their raw state, are 
not transformed directly into living tissue, but they are first broken 
up into simple compounds, called nutrients, which go toward the 
formation of the solids and fluids of the body. Their classification 
is the same as that of the components of the body already consid- 
ered, with an added group (carbohydrates), making five in all, — • 
namely, (1) protein, (2) fat, (3) carbohydrates, (4) mineral mat- 
ter (or ash), and (5) water. 

Protein. — The group of nutrients classed as protein includes com- 
pounds which contain those elements that are found in the tissues of 
all plants and animals used in feeds. The classes of materials which 
provide protein are always necessary, are the most expensive to buy, 
and are the hardest to produce at home; hence, in purchasing feed 
stuffs for the various rations, the proportion of protein they con- 
tain is usually the factor which determines the price to be paid. 

Fat.- — In the form of oils, in seeds, in vegetable products, and 
in animal tissues, fat is familiar to all. Most feed stuffs, especially 
if from vegetable sources, are relatively poor in oil content. Some 
vegetables, as flax and cotton, store up oil instead of starch and 
are at the same time rich in protein; but, as a rule, the materials 
commonly available for poultry feeding though poor in fat are 
rich in carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates. — This third class of nutrients includes the 
starches, sugars, and fibres which are chiefly valuable for producing 



172 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

energy. In vegetable feeding stuffs they constitute a distinct group. 
In animal feeding stuffs they are represented chiefly by the small 
proportion of glycogen present. Their principal elements are 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Like fat, they contain neither 
nitrogen nor sulphur, but they differ from fat in that they contain 
less carbon and more oxygen. Carbohydrates can usually be pro- 
duced at home ; very little should be purchased on a well-managed 
poultry plant, provided there is land enough for the growing of 
the proper crops. As found in feeding stuffs, carbohydrates may 
be divided into two general classes: 

(1) Substances which go to make up the cells or framework of 
the plant, such as cellulose and fibrous materials difficult to sepa- 
rate, represented in the analysis by the term " crude fibre." 

(2) Substances illustrated by starches and sugars found stored 
up in cells as reserve material, dissolving readily in water and 
sometimes represented in analysis tables by the term " nitrogen- 
free extract." 

Ash. — The mineral matter in feeding stuffs which supplies the 
incombustible material to the bird's body is called ash. This 
ingredient is very necessary, especially in the growing of young 
animals, and can be supplied to poultry in the form of grit, shell, 
bone, and feeds such as bran and alfalfa, which are rich in ash. 

Uses of Nutrients in the Body.— All the nutrients in the ration, 
minus the water present, constitute what is commonly termed the 
total dry matter. Each nutrient has a definite work to do in 
nourishing the body. In an efficient method of feeding they must 
all be supplied in abundance and in the right proportion. 

The most obvious use of protein is the production of tissue, as de- 
sired in growing chicks or young animals, the repairing and building 
up of the waste tissue in the adult, and the supplying of material 
which goes into the formation of feathers, claws, and similar parts. 
The second use is exemplified by the part which protein takes in the 
production of the egg. In compounding the ration it must be 
remembered that protein is indispensable and that its place cannot 
be satisfactorily filled by carbohydrates or fat. If, however, the 
protein content of the feed consumed is in excess of that required 
for tissue building and egg production, it is burned in the body 
like carbohydrates and furnishes material for the formation of fat. 

The uses of the carbohydrates and the fats of feeding stuffs are 
so similar that they may be considered together. Three uses are 
given: (1) They are burned and produce heat, which, keeps the 



DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 173 

bird's body warm; (2) they are burned and produce the energy 
required by the bird in moving; (3) if the supply of either is greater 
than that required for heat and energy, the excess gives rise to 
the laying up of fatty tissues. The principal difference between 
these two formers of heat and energy lies in the fact that fat has 
the greater energy value, being rated at two and a fourth times 
that of carbohydrates. 

Little care need be taken to supply ash for the uses of the adult 
animal, because the substances which furnish it are usually present 
in the ordinary ration in sufficient amounts; but the growing birds, 
especially the maturing pullets, require a greater proportion. Care 
must be taken to supply for their use an abundance of mineral 
matter, as it goes toward the formation of the bony framework of 
the body, and a large, well-developed body is impossible without 
an adequate frame. Mineral matter can best be supplied to the 
young birds in the form of wheat bran, which is easily and quickly 
digested, or by feeding finely ground oyster shells and lime grit. 
Laying birds require a ration well supplied with ash to provide 
material for the formation of the shells of their eggs. 

The three principal nutrients, protein, carbohydrates, and fat, 
are the important ones to consider when buying feeds, and it is 
well to determine the value of the purchased material by the 
weight of digestible protein which it contains. 

Water Supply. — The prime necessity of an abundant supply of 
water is too often overlooked, and the matter of cleanliness should 
not be neglected. Water has four definite functions to perform 
in the bird's body: (1) It fills up and distends the tissues, giving 
them a plump appearance; (2) it aids in digestion by dissolving 
particles of feed, so that the digestive fluids can act on them more 
readily; (3) it aids in transporting digested matter and greatly 
hastens assimilation by stimulating diffusion; (4) it aids greatly 
in the regulation of body temperature. The need of keeping a 
supply of fresh, pure water constantly accessible to birds cannot 
be too strongly emphasized. 

Digestion and Assimilation. — Much of the feed of domestic 
birds is in the form of seeds, whole grains, and the like. Such 
materials as are hard and lumpy, or are encased in hard, fibrous 
husks which resist the action of the digestive juices, cannot be 
immediately available as nourishment; they must be ground and 
crushed by the digestive organs before they can be used in the body. 
The natural means provided for this purpose are hereafter described. 



174 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

Some of the feed eaten is not digested and is voided with the 
droppings. Only that part which is capable of digestion is of 
value in nutrition and worthy of consideration by the feeder. The 
undigested residue must be subtracted from the original material 
in computing nutritive value. It is only the digestible nutrients 
which are available for assimilation. This fact is important and 
should be borne in mind in selecting feeds, as many which are rich 
in certain nutrients have a very low digestibility. The percentage 
of a feed which is digestible is called the " digestion coefficient." 
For example, whole wheat grains contain 11.9 per cent of protein, 
only 80 per cent of which is digestible or of assimilative value; hence, 
out of every 100 pounds fed, containing 11.9 pounds of protein, only 
9.5 pounds are of use to the fowl. Digestion bears a direct ratio to 
the health of the flock; and the stronger and healthier the birds are 
the better able they will be to digest a large amount of feed and get 
all of the possible good out of it. The following are some of the 
factors which affect the value or the digestibility of feeds: 

(1) Young, tender shoots of grasses and forage plants are more 
digestible than mature tissues; hence, they have a higher value 
than if allowed to become old and woody. 

(2) Grains or by-products if exposed to rains or dampness 
during the process of curing or storing will have a greatly reduced 
value as compared to those cured under favorable conditions. 

(3) A ration not properly balanced will tend to waste the 
surplus nutrients. (See Chapter XII.) 

(4) The digestibility of feed for poultry is seldom increased 
and often found to be decreased by cooking. 

(5) The indigestible portion of feeds may serve in some in- 
stances to give needed bulk to a ration, but it often places a heavy 
tax on the energy of the fowl and sometimes offsets entirely the 
nutritive value. 

Aside from the digestibility of feed, the question of its physical 
effect on the condition of the individual is an important considera- 
tion. The point to determine is whether the ration is best suited 
to the birds to which it is fed. Feeds which in themselves are 
valuable may cause disastrous results if improperly fed or if given 
to a wrong type of birds ; for example, ground green bone is highly 
nutritious, but if fed in excess will often upset the digestive system 
and thus retard the object sought, — namely, that of increasing egg 
production. Hence, ease of digestion is as important a factor as 
total digestibility. Milk is both entirely digestible and easily 



FEED REQUIREMENTS 



175 



digested. Pork scraps are digested with great difficulty, yet their 
digestible coefficient is high. (For an account of the digestive 
organs see Chapter XVII.) 

Objects of Feeding. — The feeding of different types and ages 
of poultry may be grouped in accordance with their several objects 
as follows: (1) Growth, which mostly includes the formation of 
lean meat and other tissues incident to the gain in weight exem- 
plified by the growing individual ; (2) maintenance, which includes 
the repair of waste in the body tissues resulting from the vital 
processes while performing their necessary functions, but does not 
allow for any increase either in weight or in product; (3) produc- 
tion, exemplified in birds by egg laying, incident to the important 
function of reproduction; and (4) fattening, which covers the 
special preparation of fowls for market. 

Feed Requirements. — Important experiments have been car- 
ried on in America to determine the feed requirements of domestic 
fowls, some reliable work having been done by the New York and 
the New Jersey Stations. The results of these investigations afford 
a basis of various feeding standards. While no rules can be laid 
down for absolute observance under all conditions, their judicious 
observance in a general way will serve as a guide to the feeder, who 
may vary the ration in accordance with practical experience. The 
requirements for the growth of chicks from hatching to maturity, 
for the maintenance of adult fowls, and for egg production in 
laying hens are shown in Table IV. (After Wheeler.) 



Table IV. 



-Feed Requirements of Chickens per Day for each 100 Pounds 
of Live Weight. 





Digestible nutrients (pounds). 


Fuel 

value 
(calories). 




Birds. 


Pro-" 

tein. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ash. 


Total 

dry 

matter. 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Growing chicks: 

Two to four weeks 


2.00 
2.20 
2.00 
1.60 
1.20 
1.00 

.30 
.40 
.50 

.65 
1.00 


0.40 
.50 
.40 
.40 
.30 
.30 

.20 
.20 
.30 

.20 
.35 


7.20 
6.20 
5.60 
4.90 
4.40 
3.70 

1.74 
2.00 
2.95 

2.25 
3.75 


0.50 
.70 
.60 
.50 

.50 
.40 

.06 

.10 
.15 

.20 
.30 


10.1 
9.6 
8.6 
7.4 
6.4 
5.4 

2.3 
2.7 
3.9 

3.3 
5.4 


18.S00 
17,830 
15,640 
13.7S0 
11,680 
10,000 

4,600 
5,300 
7,680 

6,240 
10,300 


1 to 4.1 
1 to 3.4 
1 to 3.3 
1 to 3.7 


Eight to ten weeks 

Ten to twelve weeks 

Adults (maintenance only): 

Capon, 9 to 12 pounds 

tt f 5 to 7 pounds 

aen | 3 to 5 pounds 


1 to 4.3 

1 to 4.4 

1 to 7.5 
1 to 6.2 
1 to 7.4 


Egg production: 

H f 5 to 8 pounds 

nen 13 to 5 pounds 


1 to 4.2 
1 to 4.6 



170 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

Growth and Maintenance. — Owing to the increase in weight 
which is taking place, the requirements oi the growing animal arc 
constantly changing. Larger birds require more nutrients per day 
per bird. Whether the object is for growth, for maintenance 
simply, or for production, the larger birds require more feed, but 
much less in proportion to live weight. It must be borne in mind 
that. while the classification oi weights given in Table IV is conveni- 
ent, the grouping is only tentative; for example, it should not be 
presumed that a hen just under five pounds in weight must always 
have a ration supplying nutrients exactly as outlined, or one just 
above five pounds should have the other ration; there is a natural 
blending, the point of division being flexible. 

Under normal conditions, about three-fourths as much nutri- 
tive material is required in a ration to maintain a flock of hens 
without production as to keep them in full laying condition. Main- 
tenance varies at different seasons of the year; as, for example, the 
energy necessary to keep a hen's body at the normal temperature 
of 105° F. during the winter requires more feed than to maintain 
the same temperature in summer. 

Egg Production. — Mature birds in full laying condition require 
rations which have a much higher protein and ash content than 
those required for maintenance, the increase being approximately 
100 per cent. The carbohydrates and fat are not required in 
nearly the same increasing amounts, yet the producing bird re- 
quires an increase in energy or fuel value of approximately 30 
per cent over that for maintenance. 

Fattening. — The exact requirements for a fowl during the 
period of fattening have never been worked out. The best results 
in practice have followed a slight reduction in protein content 
and an increase of about 75 to 100 per cent of carbohydrates 
and fat as compared to egg production requirements. During 
the finishing process a nutritive ratio of about 1 to S can be 
freely fed. 

Practicability of Feeding Standards. — One great need in study- 
ing nutrition is reliable and actual scientific data pertaining to the 
digestibility of feeding stuffs when fed to poultry. Volumes of 
carefully collected data pertaining to digestion in other farm 
animals have been published, but birds as a class have received 
very little consideration. Owing to this lack of correct informa- 
tion it is necessary to use the rules which are supposed to apply 
to animals in common hi figuring poultry rations. It is probable 



PRACTICABILITY OF FEEDING STANDARDS 177 

that the accepted laws of nutrition observed with other animals 
hold true to only a limited extent in regard to poultry, but they 
form the best guide until more accurate data can be obtained. 
Birds have a type of digestive system entirely different from that 
of any other group of animals, are of a much more active' disposi- 
tion, and of a much higher body temperature, so that it is 
only reasonable to suppose that the same coefficients of digestion 
and the same energy values would not in all cases apply. The 
standards here given are as practical and reliable as are at present 
obtainable. 

Digestion experiments have been carried on with poultry at 
the Maine Station with certain definite results. Corn showed a 
higher digestibility than any other grain tested. Wheat bran when 
fed to adult birds showed a rather low digestibility. A mixture 
of finely cut clover and corn meal was a more economical feed than 
bran. It was found that any great proportion of crude fibre was 
undesirable, being but slightly digested and of little value other 
than giving bulk to the ration; and that the addition of about 
seven per cent of bone ash slightly increased the digestion coeffi- 
cient of a mixture containing vegetable matter. 

Considerable experimental work has been done; by the United 
States Department of Agriculture pertaining to the' digestibility 
of poultry rations. The results of the work show that corn in the 
ration is one of the most economical sources of crude protein, 
nitrogen-free extract, and fat, because corn is highly digestible. 
Oats and wheat should be utilized for their crude protein and fat. 
Where wheat is used extensively, adequate provision must be 
made for the deficiency of fat in this grain. It was found that 
protein and fat in beef show high coefficients of digestibility, the 
protein, considerably higher and the fat but slightly lower than the 
corresponding nutrients in com. 

Until recently, all feeding determinations have been based on 
standards and coefficients of digestibility derived from German 
sources. When these standards are used, the total nutrients in 
the ration are considered, and the requirements of the individual 
animal determine the exact feed stuffs and the proportion in which 
they should be combined. It must be remembered that no stand- 
ard, however derived, can be properly used as the basis of absolute, 
inflexible rules. They can be used as the starting point for the 
feeder, more especially the beginner, and are not supposed to 
eliminate the use of judgment. 
12 



178 



PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 



Relation of Feed to Character of Product.— Table V shows the 
composition of various poultry feeds and of finished products. 
Note the relatively high proportion of protein in the egg and in 
the mature pullet; also the high fat content of the capon and the 
large percentage of water present in the egg. Admitting the close 
relationship which exists between the composition of feed consumed 
and the products resulting therefrom, the feeder is able to select 
those feeds which will be the most productive of the results desired. 
For example, the richness of corn in fat and carbohydrates would 
lead to the selection of that grain as the basis of a ration for the 
feeding of capons. In like manner meat scrap and green clover 
would occupy a prominent place in feeding the mature hen for 
egg production, because of the large percentage of protein in meat 
and the high water content of clover. 



Table V. — Composition of Feeds and of Finished Poultry Products. 



Materials and products. 



Feeds: 

Corn 

Oats 

Meat scrap . . . 

Green clover. . 
Finished product 

Hen 

Pullet 

Capon 

Fresh egg 



Water. 


Crude 
protein. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


10.0 


10.3 


5.0 


72.6 


11.0 


11.8 


5.0 


69.2 


10.7 


00.2 


25.0 




70.S 


4.4 


1.1 


21.6 


55.8 


21.6 


18.8 




55.5 


21.2 


18.9 




41.6 


19.4 


35.3 




66.7 


12.2 


8.9 





Ash. 



1.5 
3.0 
4.1 
2.1 

3.8 

3.4 

3.7 

12.2 



Table V also shows why a high egg yield cannot be reasonably 
expected from birds that are fed on an exclusive corn diet, and 
why other feeds than corn are required to bring the pullet to ma- 
turity in good laying condition. The importance of a properly 
balanced ration is also manifest, which simply means that the 
ration must show a proper relation between its nutrient content 
and the compounds desired in the product. When eggs are con- 
sidered as the manufactured product, it is plain that raw materials 
of the right kind and in proper amount are essential to their abun- 
dant production. 

A bird is in reality a machine, which may be compared to 
an automobile whose engine must be kept running at a low 
speed but which must have reserve power available when needed. 
The fuel required for maintaining the ordinary speed may be 
likened to the feed required for the bird's maintenance. When 



SPECIAL FEATURES 179 

it is desired to get a greater amount of energy from the engine, 
additional fuel is supplied and its speed is increased. So it is 
with the bird. When a certain product is desired, feed in addition 
to that required for maintenance must be supplied in the proper 
proportion and of the composition which will best attain the 
desired end. 

Special Features. — It has been shown by careful experiments 
that the observance of certain important factors in poultry feeding 
leads to better results. 

Need of Meat in the Ration. — Under natural conditions, with 
free range, birds will hunt for worms and insects and thus largely 
supply the meat requirements of their ration. When fowls are 
kept in close confinement, it is necessary that this meat require- 
ment be artificially supplied. The feeding of meat scrap is the 
best form of meeting this demand. In practice it is found necessary 
to sterilize the scrap completely in order to destroy toxic properties 
and increase the keeping qualities. Approved brands are sterilized 
and thus form excellent feed, but they must be fed with caution. 
In purchasing meat scrap it is safest to buy only that with guaran- 
teed analysis and from a known and reliable firm. 

It is safe to feed meat in an egg-producing ration at the rate 
of 5 to 10 per cent of the total feed. The exact percentage varies 
with the analysis of the meat and the character of the other com- 
ponents of the ration. Meat is usually fed to the birds by mixing 
it with the dry mash, where they can have constant access to it. 
When it is desirable to force them for a short time for some par- 
ticular purpose, the scrap is often fed in separate hoppers. They 
must have meat in some form, and in order to do their best the 
quantity must be ample. 

Natural Feeds for Fowls. — If it were necessary to limit birds 
to only one character or one type of feed, they would subsist 
longest and would do best on a ration entirely of grain. A large 
part of their feed, therefore, should be in the form of whole or 
cracked grains. Many kinds of grain are available, each with its 
own peculiar composition and value, and the feeder is thus allowed 
great latitude of choice in compounding rations. 

Corn is probably the grain most widely fed; moreover, it is 
greatly relished by all classes of poultry. Corn is very fattening 
and birds eat it greedily. If laying fowls are fed too exclusively 
on corn,, they are likely to take on too much flesh, the excess of 
which retards egg production. 



180 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

Wheat and its by-products constitute one of the best groups 
of feed stuffs for poultry. Oats when clipped are relished by birds 
and make an economical grain ration. Barley is also a good grain 
to feed. Buckwheat is rather fattening and usually expensive, so 
it is best given during the winter and at the evening feeding. Peas 
are generally expensive; but, being rich in protein and much 
relished by the birds, they are very desirable when their cost is 
not too great. 

Need of Variety in the Ration. — Animals as well as people tire 
of a steady diet. A variety in the ration increases the palatability, 
and, by adding relish, enhances its digestibility. Variety in the 
ration allows the birds, if they have a preference, to select the grains 
which they desire, and those are usually the ones which they most 
need. Variety can be supplied both in the grain ration and in the 
dry mash. When changes are made, they should be gradual, 
allowing birds to become accustomed to them slowly. 

Necessity of Fresh Water. — It will be remembered that more 
than 65 per cent of the egg and 55 per cent of the bird's body are 
water (Table V); hence the necessity of keeping an abundant 
supply before the laying hens and the growing birds at all times, 
in addition to what they secure from grains and succulent feeds. 
During heavy laying a flock of 100 hens will drink approximately 
10 to 15 quarts of water each day, depending upon the size of the 
birds and the season of the year. 

Relation of Fat to Laying Condition. — Hens with an excessive 
amount of body fat, due to lack of exercise and the use of fattening 
feeds, are not in good laying condition, and the egg yield will 
invariably be retarded. It has, however, been proved by experi- 
ment that some surplus fat on the body is essential. A fat hen 
has some surplus energy, but a lean hen requires all the feed she 
can digest to maintain and build up body weight and cannot use 
any for production. The laying hen requires considerable fat 
in the manufacture of the yolk, which contains about 60 per 
cent of fat. 

Value of Exercise. — In order to keep her body warm and in 
proper health, a hen should be compelled to hunt or exercise for 
the grains which she receives. It is the usual habit of these birds, 
even little chicks from the time of hatching, to scratch in search 
of feed. Exercise increases the circulation and enhances vitality. 
It is true that exercise takes energy, and all energy must be pro- 
duced from feed; yet the increased amount of feed is amply paid 



SPECIAL FEATURES 181 

for in healthy birds and an increased egg yield. To promote 
exercise it is well to keep the floor of the laying pen or scratching 
shed covered to a depth of four or more inches with good litter, 
and during the winter throw therein at least half of all the feed 
consumed. 

Digestibility of Ground Grains. — Experiments show that a 
greater efficiency is obtained from feed consumed if a part of the 
grains are fed in ground form or as a dry mash. Experiments 
covering a period of two years show that birds receiving whole 
grains give a product valued at only 48 per cent above the cost 
of feed, while those receiving part of the ration in the form of 
ground grains showed an excess of 68 per cent. The actual differ- 
ence in the total value of product was found to be about one-third 
greater with the hens having ground grains in the ration. More 
energy is required in the digestion of whole grains than ground 
grains. The exact determination of whether or not it will pay to 
feed ground grains will depend on the nature of the ration. If 
too much time and energy are required for fowls to grind the feed, 
egg production will be retarded; but, on the other hand, if all 
grains are fed ground, exercise will be restricted and the health of 
the birds impaired by reason of the tendency toward too great a 
concentration. This undue stimulation to an unnatural egg yield 
is likely to result in lowering the bird's vitality. 

Mineral Matter for Laying Hens. — The ash content of different 
feeds varies considerably, and the bird's requirements also vary 
during the different periods of its life. The problem is to adjust 
properly these varying factors to each other. During the growing 
stage and during egg production, more ash is required than is 
supplied by the ash content in vegetable feeding stuffs. Wheat 
bran is very rich in digestible ash, and is easily adapted to the 
feeding of baby chicks, but it does not supply enough to meet 
the requirements of laying hens. The lack of ash in the ration 
of laying birds tends to induce egg eating, because soft-shelled 
eggs are then likely to be produced. This condition can be pre- 
vented by keeping crushed oyster shell, ground bone, and similar 
material constantly before the hens. The shell constitutes 8 per 
cent of the whole egg, and to lay 160 eggs in a year the hen will 
require 1.6 pounds of mineral matter for the shells alone. 

Use of Sharp Grit. — Birds have no teeth with which to grind 
feed, this mastication being performed in the gizzard by muscular 
action. In order that this work may be properly done, sharp grit 



182 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING 

must be present to aid in crushing and wearing the feed into fine 
particles. The harder and sharper the grit the better, and it 
should be kept always before the birds. Digestion does not take 
place until the feed is ground in the gizzard, and when new, 
sharp grit is not present the feed must remain unground in the 
gizzard until it becomes soft and falls to pieces; this process is 
slow and results in imperfect digestion. 

Stimulating Feeds. — The use of condimental or stimulating 
feeds, such as the so-called " stock feeds," " poultry panaceas," 
and " egg feeds," should not be permitted except when birds seem 
to be lacking in appetite and it is desired to increase the palata- 
bility of their ration; and such use should be stopped as soon as the 
birds recover. It is a very bad practice to feed forcing and con- 
dition powders to strong, healthy birds. The habitual use of such 
stimulants in the ration causes the individual to become immune 
to the good effect which they may at first seem to have on the 
system. Their action on a healthy bird is very similar to that of 
alcohol on the human system ; for a short time there is an excessive 
stimulation, but the after effects are depressing because of the 
tendency to break down or unnecessarily wear out the tissue. The 
use of these stimulating substances should be discouraged. Their 
actual value as nourishment is usually only a small fraction of 
their cost, and their value for promoting palatability is not equal 
to that of common salt, which may be safely added occasionally 
for this purpose in the proportion of about one ounce of salt to 
twenty-five pounds of dry feed. 

REVIEW. 

1. Compare poultry with other farm animals. 

2. Compare a hen with a cow as a transformer of raw materials. 

3. What is the temperature of a fowl's body, and how does it affect the feed 

requirements? 

4. Give the composition of a fowl's body. 

5. Discuss the following components in detail: (a) Water, (b) ash, (c) pro- 

tein, (d) fat. 

6. Define nutrition; nutrient. 

7. Name three important nutrients and give their general composition. 

8. Give the uses of the following nutrients in the body: (a) Protein, (b) car- 

bohydrates, and (c) fat. 

9. Discuss digestibility of feeding stuffs. 

10. Name and discuss the three objects of feeding. 

11. Compare maintenance requirements of the capon and the hen. 

12. Discuss requirements for growth. 



REVIEW 183 

13. Discuss feed requirements for fattening. 

14. Compare production requirements of large and small hens. 

15. What are the possible uses of feeding standards? 

16. Discuss the relation of feed to product. 

17. Enumerate ten factors which must be considered in studying the principles 

of poultry feeding. 

18. How and when may stimulating feed be used? 

References. — Feeding of Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading 
Course Bulletin 17. Digestive Experiments with Poultry, by J. M. Bartlett. 
Maine Bulletin 184. Principles and Practices of Poultry Feeding, by H. R. 
Lewis, Bulletin New Jersey Board of Agriculture. Digestion Experiments 
with Poultry, by E. W. Brown, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 156. 
Feeding of Laying Hens, by A. G. Phillips, Kansas Bulletin 164. The Economy 
of using Animal Feed in Poultry Feeding, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulle- 
tin 149. The Adaptability of Concentrated By-products for Poultry Feeding, 
by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 27. Experiments with Whole versus 
Ground Grains, by W. P. Wheeler, New York Bulletin 106. Poultry Feeding 
Experiments, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 88. Mineral Ele- 
ments in Animal Nutrition, by E. B. Forbes, Ohio Bulletin 201. 



CHAPTER XI. 
POULTRY FEEDS. 

The previous chapter has dealt with the requirements of the 
individual and the principles of nutrition. It was shown that the 
requirements of birds for different purposes are constantly chang- 
ing, and that special factors are to be considered in selecting suit- 
able feeds for the various purposes. It is the plan of this chapter 
to take up the various materials which are available and practical 
for poultry feeding, their classification, and the way in which they 
can be most economically used. The analyses given are taken from 
reports of experiment stations and represent many hundreds of 
samples in each case. Only whole grains and their common by- 
products are considered. There are a multitude of manufactured 
poultry feeds and ready-mixed rations sold under special brand 
names. To learn the composition and desirability of such special 
rations, poultrymen should refer to feed analysis — bulletins pub- 
lished in each State in which they are sold. 

Sources of Nutrients. — All materials fed to poultry may be 
divided into two classes, — organic and inorganic. The inorganic 
or mineral feeds are water, salt, lime, and phosphate. These 
natural substances are found only in limited quantities in vegetable 
feeds, such as grains. 

Water. — As has been stated, water is essential in the ration to 
maintain right conditions in the bird's body and to supply the 
amount required for the manufacture of eggs, as one dozen eggs 
contain approximately one pint of water. Water is supplied to 
the birds in the following ways: (1) Fresh water to drink, and 
(2) succulent feeds to eat, such as green grass, sprouted oats, beets, 
cabbage, and other vegetables. 

Salt.— Salt is supplied to increase palatability and to aid diges- 
tion by diffusion. It should be supplied when necessary in the 
ration to the extent of not over four ounces to every one hundred 
pounds of dry feed. 

Lime. — The shell of the fresh egg is composed almost entirely 
of lime. Compounds of lime are used in building bone and are 
found to a limited extent in other body tissues. Grains are 
rather deficient in lime, and it is necessary to supply other lime 
if birds are kept in close confinement. The practical sources 
184 



CORN AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS 



185 



usually available are oyster shells, limestone grit, and dry ground 
bone. Their composition is shown in Table VI. 



Table VI. — Compositio?i of Sources of Lime (pounds in 


too). 


Sources of lime. 


Protein. 


Lime (CaO). 


Equivalent 

to carbonate 

of lime. 


Phosphoric 
acid (P2O5). 


Crushed oyster shells. . 

Limestone grit 

Dry ground bone 


26 


53 

18 

27 


95 
32 

49 


0.08 
.10 

24.18 



. Phosphate.- — Less than four per cent of the body of the adult 
bird is mineral matter, consisting almost entirely of phosphate 
of lime, and the use of phosphate has been found to be especially 
profitable and practical in rations for growing chicks. Bone ash is 
supplied in the form of granulated bone, bone meal, or cut bone. 

Organic Feeds. — The feeds grouped under this heading are: 
(1) Grains and their by-products, which are termed concentrated 
feeds, and (2) grasses, hay, and straw, which are called roughage. 
Concentrates take their name from the fact that high nutrient 
content is represented in small bulk; and roughage from the fact 
that a larger amount of fibre or cellulose is present, and a larger 
bulk represents only a small nutrient content. 

The leading grains must be relied upon mainly for poultry. 
The different organic feeds naturally group themselves into the 
following divisions: Grains and their by-products, animal feeds, 
hays, grasses, and vegetables. As the by-products are closely 
associated with the grains from which they are derived, these two 
groups will be discussed together. 

Corn and its by-products are the principal sources of feed for 
poultry, the great value of this grain lying in its available energy, 
due to its high percentage of easily digested carbohydrates and 
fat and the absence of all poisonous substances. 

When birds have access to a variety of grains, they usually 
select the corn first, showing that it is extremely palatable. There 
is very little difference in analysis between yellow and white corn. 
The yellow corn, however, is preferred where it can be secured, 
as it has a tendency to impart its color to the flesh of the birds 
feeding on it, and also colors the egg yolk a deeper yellow. It is 
a better practice to feed cracked rather than whole corn, as it 
necessitates more exercise to secure a sufficient amount for one 
meal. The composition of the two is the same, except that in 



186 POULTRY FEEDS 

sifted cracked corn the protein content is slightly lower, due to the 
loss of germ meal. Corn is very easily digested and assimilated. 
The facts that corn is easily digested and is a rapid fat former 
make it a very undesirable feed for mature birds in close confine- 
ment if egg-laying is desired. A great many of the farm flocks 
throughout the country are maintained almost entirely upon an 
exclusive corn diet, which results in a very small and usually an 
unprofitable egg yield. Corn does not contain the nutrients in 
the proportion in which they are required in the manufacture of 
eggs, and therefore it should be used in connection with other 
grains, its particular function being to supply heat and energy. 

Care should be taken in feeding whole or cracked corn to avoid 
the use of moldy feed. New corn which has not been properly 
dried may mold and heat; in this condition it is a very unsafe feed. 

Corn meal is used both in dry and in wet mashes. Coarse corn 
meal is usually preferred as the basis of this feed, as it is more 
bulky. As much inferior corn is ground up and sold as corn meal, 
it is safer to have meal prepared from home-grown grain. Care 
must be exercised for a few days after grinding to avoid heating. 
This can be done by spreading the sacks out on a dry floor and 
turning them a few times for the first few days. 

In some instances corn-and-cob meal is profitable, but its use 
as a poultry feed is of doubtful value, owing to the large amount 
of fibre in the cob, which contains very little nourishment. It has 
a low digestibility. It is better practice to omit the cob from the 
corn meal, and increase its bulk by the addition of wheat bran, 
short-cut alfalfa, or ground oats. 

Gluten meal is a by-product of corn carrying a high percentage 
of protein. It is separated from corn by mechanical processes in 
the manufacture of glucose and starch. Its composition is very 
uniform, and it furnishes a very good source of vegetable protein 
in the poultry ration. The one objection to feeding gluten meal 
is the fact that some mature birds not accustomed to this feed will 
often refuse to eat it. If it is desired to use gluten meal in the 
rations, it should be given the birds when they are quite young. 

Gluten feed is a term used for defining prepared rations or feed 
mixtures containing a certain percentage of gluten meal combined 
with other less expensive, bulky products. It is generally a poor 
practice to purchase the so-called gluten feeds without a guaranteed 
analysis. Even in such cases the true gluten meal is to be preferred, 
as it has a known digestibility. 



WHEAT 187 

Hominy meal is a by-product from the manufacture of hominy 
grits. In some localities it is used as a substitute for corn meal. 
Owing to its being a by-product, it can often be secured at lower 
prices than corn. Its feeding value is about the same as corn meal. 

Germ-oil meal is a by-product of the starch industry. Although 
rather limited in supply for feeding purposes, it is fairly high in 
protein and contains over ten per cent of fat. It is used in some 
localities in wet mashes for the finishing and fattening of poultry 
for market. 

Wheat. — Birds are fond of wheat, whether fed whole or ground. 
Feeding experiments show quite clearly that the feeding value of 
wheat for poultry is slightly greater than that of corn, pound for 
pound. Wheat is a more perfectly balanced ration for poultry 
feeding than any other single kind of grain. There are a great 
many grades of wheat offered for this purpose, the variations being 
in purity, soundness, color, plumpness, and hardness. In selecting 
wheat for feeding purposes, if a choice is possible, the samples 
which are pure, hard, and dark in color are usually the richest in 
protein, and hence more valuable. The whole wheat kernel can 
be fed to poultry exclusively for a longer period of time than any 
other grain, with no apparent detrimental effect. The price of 
wheat fluctuates considerably, and very often inexperienced feeders 
use a greater percentage of corn, owing to the increased price of 
wheat, believing that they get more value for the money spent. 
Such, however, is usually not the case. 

Wheat Bran and Middlings. — In the process of manufacturing 
flour, the layers of wheat kernels are split up into different com- 
ponents or grades. These are known as bran, middlings or shorts, 
and flour. Shorts are essentially the same as middlings, ex- 
cept that a larger amount of fine bran may be present. Bran 
consists of the outer coatings of wheat kernels left in large flakes 
with portions of the inner layer of protein-bearing cells. The 
product is light, bulky, and fibrous. Middlings contain a larger 
proportion of the inner layers, including some flour, and have less 
of the outer coats and are more starchy than bran (Fig. 114). 
Wheat bran, mixed with corn meal, usually forms the basis of 
most poultry mashes. Wheat bran contains a relatively high per- 
centage of nutrients, but its digestibility is rather low,— not much 
greater than that of a good grade of legume hay. Middlings may 
well form a part of a dry-mash mixture, but are rather too sticky 
for the wet mash. Coarser products should go with them in all cases. 



188 POULTRY FEEDS 

Wheat screenings consist of shrunken wheat, broken or crushed 
wheat, and some weed seeds screened from wheat before the milling 
process begins. When this material is not composed largely of 
foreign matter, such as weed seeds, hulls, and dirt, it may be a 
very desirable feed. It can often be secured for 15 to 20 cents 
per bushel less than the price of good wheat. Its use should be 
rather limited, however, owing to the great variation in quality 
which is found. 

Bread is a valuable article in the poultry ration. It contains 
considerable digestible material and can usually be secured rela- 

Outer Weill IrtnerjAra.il 

or \b ran 

Jileurone 
protein, cells 




Fig. 114. — Cross section of wheat kernel (greatly enlarged). 

tively cheap. Restaurants, hotels, bakeshops, and stores often 
have stale bread to dispose of. 

Oats.— Whole oats are nearly equal to whole wheat in feeding 
value. Owing to the large percentage of hulls, they are not relished 
so well, but will be freely eaten by the birds when they become 
accustomed to them. In feeding oats those of best quality and 
large kernels should be selected, as very inferior oats are on the 
market. It is a profitable practice to use clipped oats, the birds 
eating them much better, as they have a much less percentage of 
fibrous material. Ground oats are extensively used in poultry 
mashes, both wet and dry. 

Oat meal has for a great many years been considered a very 
good poultry feed. The price is high, but a slightly inferior grade 
can usually be purchased relatively cheap in bulk. Oat meal is 
very digestible and a good feed for baby chicks, supplying nutrients 



OATS 



189 



■m^ — i^— — — — Wf*- 



in small bulk and in a form that the birds can readily see. It 
is used extensively in fattening poultry for market, and is suitable 
for use in wet mashes during the finishing periods. Rolled or 
crushed oats with hulls may take its place; but if hulls are present, 
the advantage is entirely with 
the purer oat meal. 

Sprouted Oats. — The feed- 
ing of sprouted oats when they 
are from four to six inches high 
is a very economical method 
of supplying green feed to all 
classes of poultry. The cost 
is slight, the time required for 
growth short, and the amount 
of succulent material is very 
large. The following method 
is generally followed in the 
sprouting of grain, the idea 
being to incorporate as much 
water into them as possible 
during the sprouting period. 

Manner of Sprouting. — 
Only the best grade of plump, 
heavy feed oats should be used, 
and handled in such a manner 
that they will reach maximum 
growth quickly. Six quarts of 
clean oats are placed in a ten- 
quart galvanized pail, which is 
then filled with water at a 
temperature of not over 100° 
F., to which are added ten 
drops of formalin to prevent 

mold. The oats are allowed to soak in this in a warm room for 
forty-eight hours, during which time they will swell and fill the pail, 
having absorbed all the water. Next they are poured on a flat box 
or tray of the sprouting rack to a thickness of one inch. The sprout- 
ing rack used can be home made. It is built seven feet high and 
two feet square, equipped with seven trays, one for each day in the 
week, each tray being about two feet square. Figure 115 shows such 




Fig. 115. — Rack for sprouting oats; large 
enough to provide five hundred laying hens 
with a continuous supply of succulent food. 



190 



POULTRY FEEDS 



a rack. The rack is kept in a room where the temperature is 
not less than 60° F., and the sprouting oats are thoroughly 
sprinkled with water twice daily. In from seven to ten days, 
depending on the temperature of the room, the sprouts reach 
their best development, which is from four to six inches. After 
this, if they are not fed quickly, they go backward, owing to 
lack of nourishment in the seed. It is found that on the seventh 
day, with a temperature of 75° F., the oats are in the best condi- 
tion to feed, having taken up during the soaking and sprouting 
period three and<two-thirds their original weight of water. Figure 
116 shows the oats on the seventh day ready to feed. The best 

way to feed them is in 
broad, flat, open troughs, 
placing as much of the 
green material in the 
trough at one time as 
the birds will clean up 
immediately, leaving 
none to be scratched out 
and wasted. Under aver- 
age flock conditions one 
square inch of feeding 
surface per bird per day 
is sufficient to satisfy 
their appetites and sup- 
ply the succulence nec- 
essary, without causing 
diarrhoea. The sprouting 
oats are very palatable, being relished by every bird in the flock. 
It has been tried in some cases with sick birds which would not eat 
grain, and in nearly every instance was eaten greedily. 

Advantage of Sprouted Oats. — (1) Sprouting of oats for feeding 
is a simple process, requiring little time and attention, and in 
every case results are certain. A sprouting rack similar to the one 
shown in figure 115 is capable of supplying a continuous quan- 
tity of green feed for over 500 laying hens during the winter months. 
(2) Oats so prepared and fed to laying birds are very palatable 
and satisfying, much more so than when fed as whole grain. (3) 
This is the most economical method of feeding oats, 366 pounds 
of succulent feed being obtained from eyery one hundred pounds 
of dry oats. In every case where sprouted oats were fed to birds 




Fig. 116. — A tray of sprouted oats ready for feeding. 
Each bird receives one square inch per day. 



RYE 191 

an increased production was noted. (4) Sprouted oats are a very 
efficient source of feed compared with other succulent feed which 
could be stored. 

One hundred pounds of fresh sprouted oats contain about the 
following: Water 75.9; ash 0.8; protein 3.2; fibre 2.5; other car- 
bohydrates 16.3; fat 1.3. 

This shows a total dry matter of 24.1 pounds as compared with 
20 in potatoes, 12 in beets, and only 10 in cabbage. 

The analysis shows a protein content of 3.2 pounds as compared 
with 2.1 in potatoes, 1.3 in beets, and 2.4 in cabbage. 

Buckwheat is highly prized as a poultry feed in some sections 
Where the price is not prohibitive, and especially in sections where 
white meat is desired. It is usually fed mixed with other grains, 
its principal properties being to supply heat and energy. Owing 
to its extremely large size and angular fibrous hull, birds, as a rule, 
do not relish it in large quantities. When ground and separated 
in making buckwheat flour, two by-products are found, — bran and 
middlings. The middlings are prized for their high percentage of 
protein and fat. Buckwheat bran, being composed chiefly of hulls, 
is of little value in poultry feeding, even when ground exceedingly 
fine. Buckwheat feeds are used in Europe, where poultry with 
pink flesh is preferred over yellow. In most sections of the United 
States the yellow-fleshed, corn-fed birds command a premium. 

Barley is a suitable feed for nearly all classes of poultry and 
is a good substitute for corn. It is nearly equal in feeding value, 
and in Europe it largely takes the place filled by corn in America. 
It is usually fed whole with other grains as a scratching ration. 
Barley grains are coming into increased favor in barley-growing 
communities. They are usually relished by the birds, next to corn 
and wheat. Barley screenings are similar to wheat screenings, 
and are generally of a very good quality and desirable as a feed, 
but, owing to the possibility of adulterants, their analysis should 
be determined before extensive use is made of them. Malt sprouts 
and brewer's grains are by-products of barley. They have not 
been used extensively for poultry feeding. Theoretically malt 
sprouts may be a good source of succulent material, but, owing to 
the demand for this product as dairy feed, it has not been exten- 
sively tried by poultrymen. 

Rye. — Whole rye resembles very closely the wheat kernel, both 
in analysis and general appearance; but the birds do not eat it 
readily and it does not produce good results. Persons raising rye 



192 POULTRY FEEDS 

extensively will find it more profitable to market this material 
tmd purchase other feeds for poultry purposes. Sprouted rye is 
very palatable, and birds do well on it. The main by-products 
of rye are rye bran and distiller's grains, but, owing to limited 
supply, they are very seldom used. 

Rice. — AYhole or crushed rice is used to some extent, the crushed 
product being used in the feeding of chicks and pigeons. Usually 
the grades of rice which become available for poultry feeding are 
in limited amounts and the supply is uncertain, so that they can- 
not be considered as a constantly available poultry feed. 

Flax seed and cotton seed do not enter into any class of poul- 
try feeds except through their by-products, — viz., linseed meal and 
cottonseed meal. The former consists of ground flax seed from 
which the oil has been extracted. In the " old process " the oil 
is extracted by pressure only; in the " new process " a much 
greater percentage of the oil is removed by pressure and the use 
of gasoline or other solvents. The old process meal is more de- 
sirable for feeding purposes, especially during the molting season, 
as it hastens the growth of the new feathers. These meals when 
used are usually mixed with the dry mash. Cottonseed meal is 
not so generally used for poultry feeding, as it is supposed to have 
certain toxic or poisonous properties which may prove detrimental 
to the best results, and when used is fed in small quantities. 

Sorghum seed, when it can be obtained, makes a very satis- 
factory variation in the compounding of grain rations. It is very 
similar to corn in composition, the kernel itself being much smaller 
than wheat and very smooth. 

Broom corn, kafir, and milo maize, when obtainable at reason- 
able prices, may be used with beneficial results. Their production, 
however, is very limited both in area and distribution. With the 
large number of grains more extensively produced it is doubtful 
if the above will ever assume a prominent role in grain rations 
for poultry, except in the dryer parts of the country. 

Millet seed is relished by poultry. Its high cost prohibits the 
general use of it in rations for adult birds. Its high fibre con- 
tent makes it undesirable for chicks. 

Sunflower seed is very desirable for poultry during the molt- 
ing season. It is rich in vegetable oil and aids greatly in the 
formation of new feathers, giving the feathers a clean, glossy 
appearance, which cannot be obtained without such oil. 

Peas and Beans. — These legumes are grown in limited amounts 
and cannot be considered as standard poultry feeds, but, where 



ORGANIC FEEDS 



193 



available, either in the green or dried condition, they may be 
profitably used, as they are very rich in protein and easily digested. 

Table VII. — Corn-position of Grains and their By-products. 

(Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) 



Feed. 



Corn group. 

Dent corn 

Flint corn 

Sweet corn 

Pop corn 

Corn meal 

Corn meal (sifted) 

Corn-and-cob meal. . . 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Hominy meal 

Wheat group. 

Whole wheat 

Wheat screenings .... 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings. .... 

Low-grade flour 

Old bread 

Oat group. 
Oats, whole or ground 

Clipped oats 

Oat meal 

Rolled oats 

Buckwheat group. 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat middlings. 
Barley group. 

Barley 

Barley meal 

Barley screenings 

Malt sprouts 

Other grains. 
Linseed meal (o. p.) . . 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed meal 

Rye 

Rice 

Sorghum seed 

Broom corn seed 

Millet seed 

Sunflower-seed 

Canada field peas .... 

Cowpeas 

Soy beans 

13 



Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Fibre. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


10.6 


1.5 


10.3 


2.2 


11.3 


1.4 


10.5 


1.7 


8.8 


1.9 


11.6 


2.8 


10.7 


1.5 


11.6 


1.8 


12.0 


1.3 


8.7 


2.1 


12.0 


1.0 


8.9 


1.3 


15.1 


1.5 


8.5 


6.6 


8.2 


.9 


29.3 


3.3 


8.5 


1.7 


26.2 


7.2 


11.0 


2.5 


10.4 


4.2 


10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 | 


11.6 


2.9 


12.5 


4.9 


11.9 


5.8 


15.4 


9.0 


12.1 


3.3 


15.6 


4.0 


12.4 


.6 


10.0 


.9 


31.2 


Variable 


6.9 


Variable 


11.0 


3.0 


11.8 


9.5 i 


11.2 


2.8 


12.0 


7.4 


7.9 


2.0 


14.7 


.9 


8.5 


1.9 


15.0 


.6 


12.6 


2.0 


10.0 


8.7 


10.5 


3.1 


12.4 


31.9 


13.2 


4.9 


28.9 


4.1 


10.9 


2.4 


12.4 


2.7 


11.9 


2.6 


10.5 


6.5 


12.4 


3.6 


12.2 


7.6 


10.2 


5.7 


23.2 


10.7 


9.2 


5.7 


32.9 


8.9 


10.2 


3.5 


18.4 


23.2 


8.2 


7.2 


42.3 


5.6 


11.6 


1.9 


10.6 


1.7 


12.8 


.7 


/ .5 


•5 i 


12.8 


2.1 


9.1 


2.6 


12.7 


3.4 


10.2 


7.1 


14.0 


3.3 


11.8 


9.5 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


29.9 


13.4 


2.4 


22.4 


6.4 


14.8 


3.2 


20.8 


4.1 


10.8 


4.7 


34.0 


4.8 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



Fat. 



Per cent. Per cent. 



70.4 
70.1 
66.8 
69.2 
71.2 
72.0 
64.8 
46.5 
53.3 
64.1 

71.9 
65.1 
53.9 
60.4 
75.0 
44.2 

60.7 
61.6 
67.4 
66.0 

64.5 

38.8 
41.9 

69.8 
66.3 
61.6 
48.5 

35.4 

24.7 
23.6 
72.5 
78.1 
69.8 
63.6 
57.4 
21.4 
52.6 
55.7 
28.8 



5.0 

5.0 
8.1 
5.2 
4.7 
4.8 
3.5 
11.8 
3.1 
7.8 

2.1 
3.0 

4,0 

4.0 

1.1 

.9 

5.0 
5.0 
7.1 
8.0 

2.2 
3^3 

7.0 

1.8 
2.2 
2.6 
1.7 

7.9 

19.9 

13.1 

1.7 

.4 

3.6 

3.0 

4.0 

21.2 

3.0 

1.4 

16.9 



194 POULTRY FEEDS 

Mixed Feeds and Manufactured Products. — Certain classes 
of products designed for poultry feeding are manufactured in 
different sections of the United States. In some instances it has 
not been proved that these materials are objectionable, but in 
nearly every case experiments show that the ingredients which 
are supposed to be furnished can be more economically secured 
from natural sources. A great variety of so-called ready-mixed 
feeds are advertised. They are supposed to contain a given amount 
of nutrients in a very economical form. In practice a great major- 
ity of such feeds should be avoided, as many of them are adultera- 
tions containing a large amount of filler and make-weight material. 
Analyses made at various experiment stations show the following 
materials to be occasionally used in such feeds : Oat hulls, ground 
peanut shucks, cut straw and hay, sand, and other foreign sub- 
stances, which are used to increase the bulk and the weight of 
the feed. It is a much more economical practice for poultry- 
men to purchase the standard grains and by-products and do 
their own mixing. Any plan which will lower the grain bill will 
be helpful. 

Animal Feeds. — Leading authorities agree that, for the best 
results in poultry feeding, the birds should be given protein and 
other nutrients from animal as well as from vegetable sources. 
All feeding experiments show that where animal protein is entirely 
withheld the birds do not make so good nor economical growth, 
and cannot be made to produce as many eggs in a given period. 
There are several sources from which nutrients of an animal origin 
can be obtained. Their use depends somewhat on location and 
upon the price of the different ingredients in local markets. 

Meat scrap is undoubtedly the most popular of the different 
forms of animal matter for poultry. There are many grades on 
the market, which may be grouped as high grade or low grade. 

The high-grade meat usually contains about 60 per cent of 
protein and the low-grade about 35 to 40 per cent. It will always 
be found more economical to purchase high-grade meat scrap, as 
the price per pound of protein will be less. Then, too, the high- 
grade meat is usually more sanitary and better prepared. A com- 
mercial practice is to cook the carcasses or pieces of meat under 
steam pressure for a given number of hours, to render out the fat. 
This sterilizes them completely and kills any bacteria of a detri- 
mental nature which might be present. Scrap prepared in this 
way is not apt to contain poisonous matter. On the other hand, 



ANIMAL FEEDS 195 

it is sometimes found in the manufacture of low-grade meat scrap 
that no treatment is given to meat which would purify it; in other 
instances it is treated with a strong acid. When such methods 
are followed, there is danger of disease bacteria in the feed, or a 
strong acid residue may remain when ready for market. Beef 
scrap of this last character has been known to cause considerable 
injury and loss of valuable birds. 

Pork scrap is sometimes available for poultry feeding, but it 
contains a larger amount of fat and has a low digestibility, for 
which reasons it is not as desirable as beef scrap. 

Bone -products come next to meat scrap in popularity and 
efficiency as animal matter for poultry. They are fed either green 
or dried. The practice in preparing green bones is to secure them 
daily from the meat shop and grind them up in bone cutters and 
feed them fresh. If this method is followed, they have to be fed 
in limited quantities, as the birds will not stand a heavy feeding. 
The dried, crushed bone is a very efficient source of protein and 
ash in baby-chick feeding. (See also page 201.) 

Animal Meal. — Meat scrap, mixed with quite a large percentage 
of bone and fat, is often ground up exceedingly fine, thoroughly 
dried, and sold in the form of " animal meal." It has about the 
same feeding value as meat scrap, but there is a greater possibility 
of adulteration, and the feeder cannot be so sure of what he is using. 

Dried Blood. — This is a dried product of slaughter-houses, and, 
when properly sterilized and stored in dry places, will keep indefi- 
nitely. It can be used to good advantage in limited amounts in 
poultry mashes, especially to check diarrhoea ; however, it possesses 
no advantage over a high-grade meat scrap or bone product. 

Fish Scrap. — The feeding of fresh fish was quite extensively 
practised at one time in localities where it could be obtained, 
but, owing to the fact that it tainted the eggs and the flesh of 
poultry, the practice was discontinued. Properly prepared fish 
scrap, from which the oil has been entirely removed, is being fed 
with very good results in certain sections, especially in California. 
A very essential feature in the manufacture of fish scrap for poultry 
feeding is that all the oil, which carries the objectionable odor 
and flavor, should be removed. Some high-grade fish scrap is 
manufactured at about one-half of the cost of meat scrap. This 
contains considerable protein. If possible to obtain this, it will 
make a very satisfactory substitute. 

Clams and other shell fish, if available in sufficient quantities, 



196 



POULTRY FEEDS 



may be fed to poultry. They are palatable and supply some 
digestible material. 

Milk. — If they can be obtained in sufficient quantities at a 
price which is not prohibitive, milk and its by-products are very 
economical feeds. When used in large quantities, they furnish 
protein in an easily digested form. One undesirable feature is the 
increased labor and trouble in feeding them, especially when milk 
itself in the natural state is used. 

Skim milk is probably more often used in the neighborhood 
of large creameries or skimming stations than any other of the milk 
products. This material will supply concentrated protein in the 
ration when wet mashes are mixed with it. If desired it may also 
be given in the drinking fountains in place of water. Birds con- 
sume large quantities with very beneficial effects. It is used in 
commercial fattening of poultry, the wet mashes being moistened 
with it. Reports show that the feeding of buttermilk or sour skim 
milk to baby chicks is good practice, as the lactic acid present 
reduces the danger of infection and the spread of white diarrhoea. 

Table VIII. — Coynposition of Animal Feeds. 

(Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) 



Feed. 



Water. 



Meat scrap (high grade).. 
Meat scrap (low grade. . . 

Pork scrap 

Ground bone (dry) 

Green cut bone 

Animal meal 

Blood meal 

Dried blood 

Fresh fish 

Fish scrap (variable) .... 
Clams and other shell fish 

Whole milk 

Skim milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Cheese 

Milk albumen 

Granulated milk 

Hens' egg (others similar) 



Per cent. 

10.70 
15.40 
11.0 

8.19 
38.94 

4.90 
10.61 

6.70 
44.0 
5-10 
34.10 
87.2 
90.6 
90.1 
93.8 
40.6 
18.0 
28.5 
66.7 



Per cent. 

4.10 
2.50 
2.2 
56.95 
26.12 
42.65 
4.65 
6.60 
1.00 
2-8 
2.30 
.6 
.7 
.7 
.4 
3.4 
3.(?) 
3.6 
12.2 



Protein. 


Fibre. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


60.20 






45.00 







55.0 






31.36 






20.37 






30.45 


3.30 


10.32 


75.69 


1.28 


i.46 : 


65.10 




5.30 ; 


10.50 


42.00 




34.0-50 






6.00 


55.00 


2.00 


3.6 




4.9 


3.1 




5.3 


4.0 




4.0 


.6 




5.1 


23.7 




1.7 


43.0 


.... 


(?) 


13.7 




51.1 , 


12.2 







Per cent. 

25.00 
37.10 
31.8 

3.50 
11.67 

8.38 

7.11 
16.30 

2.50 
17.0 
.60 

3.7 
.3 

1.2 

.1 

30.6 

1-5 

3.1 

8.9 



Whey. — This by-product of cheese making should be used when 
it can be obtained. It does not have the nutrients which the butter- 
milk and skim milk contain, but it is relished by the birds. 



ANIMAL FEEDS 197 

Granulated Milk. — A milk product available for poultry feed- 
ing is known as granulated or powdered milk. It is whole milk 
evaporated and crystallized. Its cost is very high, and in most 
cases prohibitive. The only case where it can profitably be 
used is in the feeding of chicks for the first few weeks of their 
growth. 

Milk Albumen. — Another milk by-product upon the market in 
large quantities, and so well distributed that all poultrymen can 
use it if they desire, is milk albumen. This is formed from skim 
milk during the manufacture of milk sugar. It comes in various 
sizes and grades, suitable both for use in dry mashes and in scratch- 
ing rations. It varies considerably in composition according to 
method of manufacture. 

Eggs. — On most poultry plants there are infertile eggs which 
are tested and taken out of incubators at the different stages of 
incubation. These eggs, if it is not possible to dispose of them 
legitimately for baking purposes, should be utilized in the feeding 
of the birds. The best practice is to boil them hard and feed them 
to baby chicks or growing stock, it being a good plan to cut them 
up fine and mix with wheat bran. It is not recommended to feed 
whole eggs with the shells on to adult birds, as it has a tendency 
to teach them to eat eggs. It is also not a safe practice to feed 
hard-boiled eggs to extremely young chicks. A better time to 
start is when the chicks are about two weeks old. Eggs which 
contain dead germs, if the hatch is tested on the fifth to the seventh 
day, may be used equally well. In feeding hard-boiled eggs, the 
practice should be to feed only what the birds will clean up soon. 
If eggs are allowed to remain on the floor or the brooder or in the 
feeding yard, they will sour and produce an unsanitary feed. 

Legumes and grasses are usually fed to poultry in two different 
forms: First, in the cured state in the form of hay; and second, 
in the form of green succulence. In the dry condition they are 
usually cut fine and mixed in the dry mash to increase bulkiness. 
Alfalfa, clover, and certain mixed grasses are generally used for 
this purpose. There are on the market short-cut clover and alfalfa 
hay and also clover and alfalfa meal. Where alfalfa or clover can- 
not be raised on the farm, it is profitable to include one of these 
in the short-cut form in the dry mash for the laying birds during 
the winter. 

Alfalfa hay, both in the short-cut and meal forms, offers ex- 
ceedingly good opportunity for the use of adulterants; for this 
reason the short-cut form is most desired, as the percentage of 



198 



POULTRY FEEDS 



adulterated material can easily be detected. Clean alfalfa hay 
is bright green in color and has the true alfalfa smell. 

Cut timothy is often used as an adulterant, and this can easily 
be detected by the large amount of yellow or brown material pres- 
ent; this adulteration cannot easily be detected in fine-ground or 
meal form. 

Table IX. — Composition of Hays and Grasses. 

(Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) 



Water. 



Ash. 



Protein. I Fibre. 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



Fat. 



Per cent. 

Alfalfa (green) 80.00 

Alfalfa (dry) 11.90 

Clover (green) 70.80 

Clover (dry) 10.00 

Lawn clippings (green).. . 76.40 

Lawn clippings (dry) .... 15.30 

Barley (green) 76.00 

Peas and oats (green). ... 80.50 



Per cent. 

1.80 
7.13 
2.10 
8.10 
2.40 
5.50 
7.30 
1.74 



Per cent. 

4.90 
14.12 
4.40 
16.32 
2.30 
7.40 
2.71 
2.90 



Per cent. 

4.70 
27.09 

8.10 
17.84 

4.10 
27.20 

6.90 t 

600 



Per cent. 

7.90 
37.34 
13.50 
45.99 
13.80 
42.10 
7.00 
8.80 



Per cent. 

.07 
2.42 
1.10 
1.75 
1.00 
2.50 
.09 
.06 



The green crops which are raised for poultry feeding most 
extensively are alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, cereals, and buckwheat. 
All green succulent grasses are desirable, and the one which grows 
best during a given month should be ready at that time. Legumes 
are most desirable for feed, as they contain considerable protein 
and produce a heavy yield. A small alfalfa field should be run 
in connection with every poultry plant, and will allow from three 
to six cuttings of the same field during the season, supplying a 
continuous source of green feed. 

Vegetables. — A valuable property of vegetables in poultry 
feeding is the amount of water they contain. They make very 
desirable succulent feed where they can be grown successfully. 
Fresh, leafy vegetables can be used for only a short time, as they 
wilt and spoil quickly. Some of the root crops, such as mangels 
and beets, maintain their succulent condition for a long time, and 
will furnish succulence well through the winter if properly stored. 

The leading vegetable crops found most useful in supplying 
succulence, during certain seasons of the year, are considered here. 
It is rather hard to keep vegetable crops in storage for any con- 
siderable time during the winter without a special place, as in an 
underground root cellar. They are often used up soon after their 
natural season to prevent loss in storage. 



VEGETABLES 



199 



Potatoes. — Potatoes are not extensively used for poultry feed- 
ing, and should be fed sparingly. Birds eat them readily, especially 
when cooked and mixed with a mash. The results of eating a 
great many of them in this form are to decrease the appetite for 
complete rations at future feedings, and to put on excessive fat, 
due to high content of carbohydrate. Raw potatoes are not eaten 
readily by birds. 

Beets, as a group, form one of the most valuable succulent 

crops. The several types are garden beets, mangel-wurzels, and 

sugar beets. Mangel-wurzels are valued for their extremely large 

size and large yields per acre. They contain considerable water 

__... _ ... __.. ._. 




Fig. 117. — Mangel-wurzel beets at harvest time. The tops are cut green and fed immedi- 
ately; the roots are pulled and, after curing a few days, are stored for winter feeding. 

in the fresh state, are easily preserved in good condition well into 
the winter, are relished by the fowls, and will produce no harmful 
results. They will not entirely replace greens as a source of suc- 
culence, but are among the best substitutes available (Fig. 117). 
Dried beet pulp, which is a by-product of the beet-sugar industry, 
has been tried to a limited extent as a means of supplying succu- 
lence to poultry during the winter when other sources were not 
available. Results tend to show that it can be profitably used for 
the purpose. 

Other Root Crops. — Turnips, carrots, and parsnips are used in 
limited amounts where they are available. When fresh and cut 
in vegetable cutters, birds relish them as well as they do mangels. 
It is generally the practice to use only small roots which cannot 



200 



POULTRY FEEDS 



be sold for market purposes, and it is not possible to hold large 
quantities of them over for any length of time, as they begin to 
rot quickly and the feeding of rotted or decayed products of this 
kind tends to produce bad flavors in the eggs. 

Onions have always been considered as a tonic when fed to 
poultry in small quantities, the general practice being to cut them 
up fine and feed them in wet mashes. Birds relish onions in all 
forms. It is necessary to limit the amount fed, however, as they 
are apt to impart some of their odor to the eggs and flesh. Limited 
quantities of chopped onion tops are a desirable addition to rations 
for growing chicks. 

Table X. — Composition of Vegetables. 
(Total ingredients are given, regardless of their digestibility.) 



Feed. 



Roots. 

Potatoes (white) 
Potatoes (sweet) 
Beets (mangel). . 
Beets (sugar). . . 
Beet pulp (dry). 
Beet pulp (wet ) . 

Onions 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Artichokes 

Leaves. 

Cabbage 

Lettuce 

Beet tops 

Rape 

Onion tops 

Chard (Swiss) . . 



7S.9 
71.1 
90.9 
86.4 
8.0 
89.8 
87.6 
90.5 
88.6 
80.0 

90.5 
95.9 
88.0 
89.2 
91.0 
87.8 



Ash. 



Per cent. 

1.0 
1.0 

1.1 

.9 
5.4 

.6 

.6 

.8 
1.0 
1.0 

1.4 
.8 
2.4 
2.0 
1.1 
2.4 



Protein. 



2.1 
1.6 
1.4 
1.8 
9.5 
.9 
1.4 
1.1 
1.1 
2.5 

3.8 
1.6 
4.4 
3.4 
3.9 
4.4 



Fibre. 



.6 
1.3 

.9 

.9 

15.4 

2.4 

.7 
1.2 
1.3 

.8 

1.5 



2.6 
3.0 
2.9 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



Prr rent. 

17.3 

24.6 
5.5 
9.8 

61.3 
6.3 
9.4 
6.2 
7.6 

15.5 

2.4 
1.0 
2.6 
2.3 

.8 
2.5 



Fat. 



Per cent. 

0.1 
.4 



.4 



.4 
2 
2.2 
.5 
.2 
A 



Cabbage is one of the most popular and most valuable vege- 
tables for succulent poultry feed. The crop grows rapidly and a 
large yield is possible from a small area. Its keeping qualities 
are as good as or better than most other vegetables. It is the best 
practice when growing cabbage for poultry feeding to allow it to 
head up well, because the total weight of succulent feed is thereby 
greatly increased. Cabbage may either be fed chopped fine and 
mixed with mashes, or it may be suspended on a cord or on a 
hook and the birds allowed to eat it directly from the head. 



MINERALS FOR POULTRY 201 

Lettuce is as desirable a source of succulent feed as cabbage, 
but, owing to the smaller yield, its poor keeping qualities, and its 
high market value for human consumption, it is little used for 
poultry. It is often economical to raise small quantities of lettuce 
for the feeding of baby chicks, as they relish it and thrive on it. 

Kohl-rabi may be spoken of as a turnip-cabbage. The fleshy 
stem is used for its succulence. In value it is about equal to turnip, 
and the keeping qualities are good. 

Rape is used where it is desired to sow the crop broadcast and 
either allow the birds access to it or harvest it with a scythe. It 
is very hardy and will grow in the fall as late as cabbage. 

Swiss chard is planted in rows and cultivated, the crop being 
supplied to the birds at regular intervals. The chard will grow 
continually after each successive cutting, and one seeding will 
produce a large amount of succulent feed in a season. 

Minerals for Poultry. — The importance of minerals in poultry 
rations has been much neglected in the past. Recent experiments 
tend to show that the character, composition, and source of min- 
erals or ash in a ration are the determining features as to the effi- 
ciency of a given ration. 

Dried ground bone, either in the form of bone meal or granu- 
lated bone, has proved to be a very good source of both protein 
and phosphate. Samples averaging 25 per cent protein and 24 
per cent of mineral matter can be purchased so reasonably as to 
make them, beyond doubt, a very economical source of protein 
and ash. Birds relish dried bone. It has no laxative properties, 
and is recommended for the feeding of baby chicks and growing 
stock. 

Fresh cut bone consists of refuse bone and clippings from 
butcher-shops. This product when available, ground in especially 
prepared cutters, is a very good source of protein and mineral 
matter. The supply is usually limited, and the price rather high. 
Where a large number of birds are to be fed, it is better to purchase 
the bones in bulk, and grind them by the use of a power bone 
cutter on the plant. Fresh bone is not good for growing chicks, 
but will produce excellent results when fed to laying stock. It is 
very forcing when fed in large quantities, and it is the best practice 
to limit it to less than 15 per cent of the dry-mash ration. (See 
also page 195.) 

Crushed oyster shell is the best source of lime in the ration. 
Ash from this source is important for the formation of egg shells 



202 POULTRY FEEDS 

in the case of laying hens. It seems to be of less value for growing 
chicks, as it contains little if any phosphate. Samples of crushed 
oyster shells usually run over 95 per cent carbonate of lime. 
Crushed shells are especially valuable when they can be fed fresh, 
that is, gathered regularly from the beach, or after the oysters 
or clams have been removed, and immediately crushed or ground. 

Sources of Phosphate. — Composition (pounds in 100). 

Phosphoric acid, 
Protein. P 2 5 . 

Granulated bone (dry) ' 25 24 

Green cut bone 19 to 34 23 to 25 

Phosphate rock 28 to 32 

Poultry grit is not valuable as a source of ash,- as it usually 
contains little if any lime, and very little phosphate, the main 
component being silica. The function of grit is that of grinding. 

Other Sources of Mineral Matter. — There are a great many 
advertised sources of mineral matter for poultry feeding. Few of 
the commercial forms, however, seem to supply the particular 
kind of mineral in the best form. Raw phosphate rock gives fair 
results, but the available mineral matter is small in comparison 
with its bulk. There are certain advertised commercial feeds 
which are guaranteed to contain a large quantity of ash. Some 
of these, owing to their physical properties, are of little value, 
and are not economical when compared with the results obtained 
by the use of cheaper and better-known materials, such as bone 
products. 

Ash in Grains. — Wheat bran is a very efficient source of ash 
and is fed quite extensively with this purpose in view. Consider- 
ing only its value as a protein carrier, the cost of wheat bran is 
relatively high, but considering its palatability and high ash con- 
tent it can be highly recommended. It is desirable in the feeding 
of baby chicks. There are other grains, such as barley and oats, 
which contain enough ash to be worth considering. 

Double Function of Minerals.- — Experiments show that the ash 
content in a ration bears a definite relation to the complete use 
of other nutrients in it. Not only is the actual availability of the 
mineral matter itself of value, but mineral compounds have a 
very noticeable effect in increasing the digestibility of other 
nutrients in the ration, especially protein. Minerals thus perform 
a double function. 



REVIEW 203 



REVIEW. 

1. Into what two great groups can all feeds be divided? 

2. Name the inorganic substances used for feed. 

3. Discuss the use of water in digestion and assimilation. 

4. When and where should salt be used? 

5. When are phosphates especially useful? 

6. What is meant by organic feeds? Give several examples. 

7. Where does corn rank as a poultry feed? 

8. What by-products of corn are used in poultry feeding? 

9. Discuss wheat and its by-products as a poultry feed. 

10. Name the parts of the wheat kernel and what feed each forms after milling. 

11. Tell of the value of oats as a poultry feed. 

12. Discuss sprouted oats, their use, and methods of sprouting. 

13. Give the composition of sprouted oats. 

14. Discuss the use of each of the following grains in poultry feeding: Buck- 

wheat; barley; rye; rice; sorghum seed; sunflower seed; peas and beans. 

15. What is the source of oil meal? 

16. What is the advice regarding the use of ready-mixed feeds and manu- 

factured product? 

17. Enumerate the important feeds of animal origin. 

18. With respect to what nutrient are they especially important? 

19. Give the composition of beef scrap, and discuss its use as a feed. 

20. Give the composition of ground bone, and its use as a poultry feed. 

21. From what standpoints is milk a desirable feed? 

22. Discuss the use of skim milk in poultry feeding. 

23. Under what conditions can eggs be profitably used in feeding poultry? 

Tell how. 

24. Discuss, in detail, hays and grasses as to their uses as feeds. 

25. What vegetables are often grown for feeding poultry? 

26. Discuss mangel-wurzel beets as feed for poultry. 

27. Give the sources of mineral matter in the ration. 

28. Discuss minerals and their effect upon digestibility. 

References. — The Economic Value of Root Crops, by E. R. Minn, Cornell 
Bulletin 317. Poultry Feeding Stuffs, by H. J. Wheeler, Rhode Island Bulle- 
tin 84. Poultry Feeding, by M. E. Jaffa, California Bulletin 164. Condimental 
Feeds, Delaware Report, 1901. Commercial Feeding Stuffs, United States 
Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 108. Alfalfa Meal as a Feeding Stuff, in U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletin 259. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING. 

Before discussing the requirements of a successful ration and 
the practice commonly used in the feeding of poultry, it is well 
that the design and construction of the feed house be considered 
and that the equipment be reviewed. 

FEEDING EQUIPMENT. 

The Poultry Feed House. — A great many poultry plants, 
whether small or large, owing to improper facilities for the handling 
of feed and the mixing of rations, lose large sums of money through 
waste and labor which could easily be saved by careful attention 
to better methods. 

In the design and laying out of a poultry plant, one of the 
things to be considered is the location of the feed house. It should 
be centrally located on rather high ground, if possible, giving good 
drainage and freedom from dampness; it should be easy of access 
both from the main highway and from the different units or laying 
houses themselves. In some instances it is desirable to locate the 
feeding room in the centre of the long laying house, having over- 
head tracks running from the feeding room directly to the different 
houses. This is a great labor-saving device, and proves very 
serviceable in the caring for adult birds in the intensive house. 
In equipping broiler plants, where a special feed room is required 
for chick rations, the overhead track system has been found very 
economical and practical. 

In planning the style and construction, two things should be 
borne in mind: First, to have the building large enough for the 
storing of grains and the proper housing of the feeding appliances ; 
and, second, to have it, as far as possible, proof against mice and rats. 

The feed house is often two stories in height (Fig. 118), with 
the grain-storage bin located on the second floor and the rations 
falling through chutes to the lower floor. This gives ample room 
on the lower floor for the proper arrangement of mixers, grinders, 
and other appliances. There must be room for feed pails, for 
drinking fountains, for hoppers, and for storage when needed. 

204 



FEEDING EQUIPMENT 



205 



It may be possible during certain seasons of the year to buy 
at reduced prices large quantities of grain and hold it for later use. 
Thus much can be saved. This practice is impossible without 
large storage bins. 

The feature of having the house proof against rats and mice 
is important; for, if these enemies gain access to the grains, a con- 
stant and considerable loss will be going on which may be almost 
unnoticed. On an extensive plant it may be feasible to construct 
the entire feed room of concrete or hollow tile; but where, owing 
to limited funds or other reasons, it is necessary to erect a frame 
building, it will be found a very desirable practice to fill in concrete 




Fig. 118. — Poultry feed house centrally located, with long laying house on either side. 
The upper floor is used for storage of hay and grain, and the lower floor for mixing and 
weighing. 

between the inside sheathing and the outside weather boarding to 
a height of about thirty inches from the ground. If this is done 
during the construction of the house, it adds very little to the cost 
and prevents rats and mice from gnawing through from the out- 
side. In addition to this, a good, heavy concrete floor should be 
laid on a crushed stone or cinder bottom. If the moisture insula- 
tion of tar paper be used, as described in Chapter VII, it will 
insure dryness, which is essential to keep the grains from molding, 
besides adding to the rat-proof feature. 

Special Feed-room Equipment. — The amount, character, and 
size of the appliances required properly to equip the feed room for 
work will be determined largely by the size of the plant and the 
character of the work to be done. A poultry plant making a 



206 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

specialty of egg production, with market broilers and dressed 
poultry on the side, may require under average conditions the 
following equipment in the feed room: Caldron, dry-mash mixer, 
vegetable cutter, hay cutter, bone cutter, and power. 

Caldron. — A cooker or steamer is useful for the cooking of hot 
mashes during the winter, in the preparation of special mashes 
for special feeding purposes, and in heating or scalding any 
moldy or partially injured grains to restore their feeding value. 
Water may be heated in it for the scalding of utensils. Such a 
caldron should be of from thirty to fifty gallons capacity and 
strongly built. 

Dry-mash Mixer. — On plants where a large number of birds 
are fed and where such materials as green cut clover and ground 
bone are used in the mashes, it is necessary to mix them daily; 
where this is done a good power mixer will save labor. Most of 
these mixers are similar to a baker's dough mixer. An important 
feature in the mixer is that the basin can be easily emptied. The 
floats or mixers should do the work thoroughly and quickly. 

On small plants such an equipment is not required. One of 
the most economical methods is to mix the ration on the floor by 
means of scoop shovels, mixing from 500 to 1,000 pounds at one 
time and storing it in bins ready for use. 

Vegetable Cutter. — A vegetable cutter is often used if many 
vegetables, such as beets, are fed. Birds seem to relish them better 
and eat more of them if they are finely cut and fed in troughs; 
there is less waste but more labor than if they are fed whole. 

Hay Cutter.— Fresh clover, alfalfa, and other green, succulent 
materials are often run through a hay cutter, which can also be 
used for the cutting of dry hay, such as alfalfa, and straw for litter. 

Bone Cutter. — In localities where it is possible to secure a supply 
of fresh bones, it may be well to have a power bone cutter. Some 
forms can be used either for dry or green bones. Cut bones pro- 
vide a very economical source of animal protein and ash. 

Power. — A plant large enough to warrant the extensive equip- 
ment as outlined should have some source of power to run the 
machines. The gasoline engine will doubtless prove the cheapest 
and best on a farm. Near large centres of population an electric 
motor will probably supply the power more cheaply. In the equip- 
ment of the feed room an effort should be made to reduce the labor 
item to a minimum. This will allow one man to care for an in- 
creased number of birds; in other words, it will lower the labor 



FEEDING EQUIPMENT 



207 



cost per bird during the year. The labor item is the second 
greatest item in the cost of production, — feed being first. 

Feed Wagons. — On large plants where the attendant makes 
his rounds and must cover considerable distance, it is found very 
feasible to do the feeding from a wagon constructed for the purpose 
(Fig. 119). This wagon may contain egg cases for the collection 
of eggs, and a box or receptacle for the removal of droppings when 
the houses are cleaned. Such a wagon is also useful for the trans- 
portation of young stock to and from the range. 

Compounding Rations. — By a ration is meant the amount of 
feed given a bird or flock of birds in a day. It includes the feed 




Pig. 119. — The poultry feed wagon is a great labor saver in caring for poultry on 
the range. (Photo from Cornell University.) 

given both naturally on the range or in the yard and that pro- 
vided by the feeder. 

In compounding the ration or daily diet for a laying hen, 
several factors should be carefully considered : Breed, age of birds, 
housing condition, season, and range. The prices of feed and the 
amount of labor must be taken into account. Other points are 
discussed under the headings that follow. 

Sufficient Nutrients. — The first requisite in a successful ration 
is that it contains a sufficient amount of feed adapted to the pur- 
pose desired. The nourishing parts of feed are called " nutrients " ; 
these are of several kinds: Protein, carbohydrates, and fat. The 
nutrients in a feed may be expressed either in the amount required 
per bird or the amount required per 100 pounds in live weight. 
Owing to the great variation in the weight of the individuals, it 



208 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

is usually expressed in the latter form. Two features must be 
considered in this respect: (1) The amount of each of the three 
nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, and fat — that 100 pounds live 
weight will require; and (2) the heat or energy which the ration 
will develop when consumed. 

As stated in a previous chapter, standards have been devised 
that give approximately the amounts of different nutrients and 
the number of heat units required. Wheeler's standard shows 
digestible nutrients per day for 100 pounds live weight for hens 
in full laying condition. By this standard it will be noted that 
as birds increase in size the amount of feed required by the indi- 
vidual is increased per individual, but actually decreased for each 
100 pounds live weight. This is due to the fact that fewer in- 
dividuals are required to make the 100 pounds weight. Feeders 
often fail to supply enough nutrients for heavy layers. 

Nutrients must be in the Right Proportion. — It is just as essential 
that the nutrients in the ration be of the right proportion as that 
they should be sufficient in amount. The right proportion will be 
determined by the purpose of feeding and by the age and character 
of the individuals themselves. For instance, if the purpose is to 
feed for fat and flesh, as in the preparation of birds for market, an 
increased proportion of fat and carbohydrates in the feed will be 
required. On the other hand, if the feeding is for egg production, 
a large amount of protein material will be essential. 

The age and the breed of the specimens being fed influence 
the proportion of nutrients in the following manner: The heavier 
breeds naturally have a tendency to take on flesh quickly, and, 
therefore, large proportions of fat-forming nutrients are not re- 
quired when feeding for egg production. With more active breeds, 
as the Leghorns, more of such nutrients may be used. As the indi- 
vidual gets older the natural tendency becomes more and more 
pronounced to take on excessive flesh, and this character of feed 
should be withheld. 

Nutritive Ratio. — The proportion of nutrients in any ration is 
called the " nutritive ratio." By nutritive ratio is therefore meant 
the relative value of the particular nutrients, and it might be ex- 
pressed as a measure of quality. The ratio is expressed in numbers 
giving the protein as one and comparing this with the combined 
carbohydrates and fat. For instance, a ration containing 100 
pounds of protein and 400 pounds of carbohydrates and fat will 
be expressed as having a nutritive ratio of one to four. 



FEEDING EQUIPMENT 209 

The nutrients must first be reduced to the same value. The 
fat in a feed is richer than the others in heat value. Fat has been 
found to have an energy value of two and one-quarter times that 
of carbohydrates, so that it is necessary, in order to reduce them 
to the same value, to use this coefficient in the solution. Nutritive 
ratio can be expressed in the following manner, by formula: Given 
a ration containing 10 pounds protein, 30 pounds carbohydrates, 
and 5 pounds fat. 



Nutritive ratio = 1 


4.13 


Protein 


carbohydrates + (fat X2.25) 


10 


30 + (5X2.25) 


10 


41.25 


1 


4.13 



It will be noticed in the above calculation that the amount of 
fat present was multiplied by 2.25. 

Potential Energy. — It is often helpful to know the heat values 
which the nutrients present in a ration will develop when consumed 
by the birds. This capacity is expressed by the term " potential 
energy." This means the measure of value in units of heat or 
energy in the nutrients themselves. 

Potential energy is expressed in calories per ounce. A calory 
is a unit of heat or energy. It is the amount of heat necessary to 
raise one gram (about s J a of an ounce) of water one degree of 
temperature on the centigrade thermometer. It is known that 
one ounce of carbohydrates or of protein has a potential energy 
of 116 calories, while one ounce of fat has a potential energy of 
264 calories. In actual practice the energy value of any ration 
may be quickly determined by using the following multiples : One 
pound of protein or of carbohydrates will develop 1,860 calories, 
and one pound of fat will develop 4,220 calories. 

Balanced Rations.- — It is possible by careful calculation to 
approximately compound a ration which will contain a sufficient 
amount of nutrients in the right proportion for the laying hen. 
When this is done the ration is expressed as being balanced, or, 
better, as being proportioned to meet the requirements of the indi- 
vidual for combined maintenance and production. In actual prac- 
tice it is possible to balance rations for only short intervals. The 
ration as combined may leave nothing to be desired, yet the birds 
exercise their power of selection, some individuals getting an en- 
tirely different diet from others. Individual desires and inclina- 
tions differ. The actual feeding practice should be to form an 
14 



210 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

approximately correct ration, watch its effect upon the individual 
flocks, and modify such rations as judgment may indicate. 

Rations must Contain Succulence and be Palatable. — The ration 
as compounded must supply to the birds an abundance of succulent 
material. If not present under natural conditions, it will be neces- 
sary to supply it daily from an artificial source for at least one 
feeding. Where the birds have free range and an abundance of 
green grass, artificial sources are not necessary. In the winter, 
sprouted oats, mangel beets and cabbage, one or all, may be 
economically used. In the summer the feeding of green crops 
either by soiling methods or pasture should be largely depended 
upon, according to area and character of the range. 

The paiatability of the rations should not be overlooked, for 
if the birds do not like a ration it usually means that they will 
not consume a sufficient amount to supply their needs. The 
natural craving for a good ration will increase the amount con- 
sumed. In most cases the digestibility of a ration is increased by 
being palatable, because secretion of digestive juices is increased. 
Variety is an important factor in paiatability. 

Sufficient Bulk. — Rations that are too concentrated should 
be avoided. When consumed they do not distend the digestive 
organs enough to allow a thorough mixing with the digestive 
juices. The feed is insufficiently digested, resulting in a tendency 
to produce diarrhoea and other disorders. Such materials as 
wheat bran, short-cut alfalfa, ground oats, and others, when added 
to a dry mash, increase bulk and make it more digestible than 
if the ration is composed of only middlings, corn meal, gluten, 
and meat scrap. 

There is a possibility, on the other hand, of having a ration 
too bulky, so that it will be necessary for the birds to consume 
extremely large amounts in order to get the required amount of 
digestible nutrients. The bulky materials added usually contain 
much fibre with little nutritive value. Care must be exercised in 
the preparation of rations to have them of proper bulk. 

Economical but not Cheap. — The cheapest feeds which can be 
purchased are not always the most economical. For instance, 
100 pounds of meat scrap analyzing 40 per cent protein can now 
be purchased for $50 a ton, and meat scrap purchased for $60 a 
ton usually analyzes 60 per cent protein. If the low-grade meat 
scrap is purchased, the poultryman pays $6.25 for every hundred 
pounds of protein, whereas for the high-grade meat he would pay 



FEEDING EQUIPMENT 211 

only $5.00 for every hundred pounds of protein. In other words, 
the purchase should be based on the total amount of digestible 
material which can be procured for $1.00, and not on the price 
of 100 pounds of the material in bulk. 

Just because a moldy feed, perhaps cracked corn, which has 
become heated, can be purchased at a low price, it does not neces- 
sarily follow that it is the most economical cracked corn which 
can be purchased. In such cases the reverse will usually be true. 
In selecting poultry feed stuffs from which to form a ration, quality 
should come first and cost second. 

The Cost of a Pound of Protein. — It is often necessary to pur- 
chase practically all the protein feed stuffs, while many of the 
carbohydrate feeds can be produced on the farm if there is 
sufficient room to admit of the growing of such crops as corn. In 
all cases protein feeds are the most expensive. It is usually the 
most economical practice, in deciding which feed to buy, to deter- 
mine the amount of digestible protein present. Wheat bran con- 
taining 12 per cent of protein has 12 pounds of protein in a hun- 
dred. Corn containing 8 per cent of protein has 8 pounds in a 
hundred. Oil meal containing 30 per cent of protein has 30 pounds 
of protein in a hundred. High-grade meat scrap containing 60 
per cent of protein has 60 pounds of protein in a hundred. (The 
number of pounds per hundred as given here is sometimes referred 
to as units per ton.) Take these weights of protein as a basis for 
figuring cost value. A unit of protein in such feed stuffs can now 
be purchased for about $1.00; this means five cents per pound. 

For example, high-grade meat scrap showing 60 per cent of 
protein will contain 1,200 pounds of protein in every ton. Divide 
the cost of a ton, which is $60, by 1,200, the total amount of pro- 
tein, and we have the cost of a pound, five cents. 

The above method will be found very efficient in determining 
the most economical feed to purchase to supplement home-grown 
or purchased carbohydrate feeds. 

Ration Easily Mixed and Stored. — Since labor is an expensive 
item on the poultry plant, it will be found economical, from a 
standpoint of time and labor, to compound the ration of such 
materials as are easily mixed, and store them in large quantities 
ready for use. It should be the practice to mix both the dry mash 
and scratching rations separately in large quantities at one time. 
It is well to purchase grains, as far as possible, in large amounts 
at frequent intervals, in order to save labor in handling. It will 



212 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

often be found possible to buy grains in bulk out of season at a 
much reduced price. 

Another great advantage in mixing rations in large quantities 
is that a greater uniformity in feeding is secured than when each 
ration is mixed daily. Unless a great deal of care is exercised, 
there is always a wide variation in the composition when mixed 
in single lots. 

Rations Correctly Fed. — Regularity in poultry feeding is an 
important requisite. The birds become accustomed to a given 
hour and expect their feed at that time. Any variation from this 
order will soon result in a reduced production. 

Having combined the best possible ration, intelligence is re- 
quired in feeding it if the best results are to be obtained. Condi- 
tions in the flock and the season are constantly changing. Cor- 
responding changes in the ration and methods of feeding should 
be made to maintain a uniform condition in health, weight, and 
productivity. 

Grit, Shell, Charcoal, and Salt. — In addition to the rations 
containing the right amounts of nutrients, it is necessary to keep 
before the birds at all times a hopper containing crushed grit. 
This is needed to enable the birds properly to grind and digest the 
grains fed. The function of the grit is to act as " teeth," and should 
be extremely hard and angular. As a rule, it is found unnecessary 
to supply grit often when the birds have free range. 

Crushed oyster shells should always be available to the birds 
to furnish the lime necessary to form the shell of the newly 
formed eggs. 

Powdered or crushed charcoal is also very desirable, as it acts 
as a cleanser or purifier, cleansing the system and keeping the 
birds in good condition. It is also rich in mineral matter. It may 
be mixed with the dry mash in self-feeding hoppers or fed in 
separate hoppers. It can profitably be used at the rate of five 
per cent by weight in the mash, but less than this is common. 

Salt added to the ration in limited amounts increases pala- 
tability, and hence induces the birds to eat it more readily. Its 
use in large quantities is detrimental. 

SYSTEM OF FEEDING. 

A great many general systems are practised in poultry feed- 
ing, many of which contain good points, many bad. The best 
system to use in any case will be determined largely by the object 



SYSTEM OF FEEDING 213 

sought. All systems have been analyzed carefully and will fall 
under one of the four following combinations : (1) Trough feeding 
of wet mash ; (2) hopper feeding of dry mash ; (3) scratch feeding 
of cracked grains ; (4) hopper feeding of cracked grains. 

Combinations of two or more of these are often used, and 
undoubtedly give better results than the exclusive use of any 
one alone. 

Trough Feeding of Wet Mash. — This system is recommended 
for use where a small number of birds is to be fed, and only when 
it is possible to devote considerable time and attention to them. 
It may also be used when it is desired for some reason to force for 
an increased production, as in the case of adult birds which are 
laying poorly; to hasten maturity, as in the case of late-hatched 
pullets; during very cold winter weather, when it is desired to 
give the birds increased warmth by feeding them mashes mixed 
with hot water; it is also recommended for fattening purposes, 
especially for the finishing period. 

Advantages. — When care is used and this ration is fed properly, 
it is probably a little more productive of results, as the birds are 
induced to eat more. 

Disadvantages. — More labor is required in mixing and feeding; 
if not fed with a great deal of care, and if allowed to become sour 
or moldy, it may produce indigestion and diarrhoea. If the 
troughs are not very large, it does not give each bird an equal 
chance. This method requires constant attention to the details 
of feeding, careful watching of the condition of the birds, and the 
practising of absolute cleanliness. 

General Usage. — This method is usually practised on small 
farms where flocks are small, and where there is sufficient time for 
the feeder to do the work properly. It is sometimes used on large 
plants in connection with dry mash during the winter. It is always 
practised in the fattening of poultry. 

Hopper Feeding of Dry Mash. — This method is one of the 
best in the feeding of large flocks when it is desired to lessen the 
amount of labor, and especially in feeding concentrated parts of 
the ration to laying hens. One important factor in the hopper 
feeding of dry mash is that a successful hopper be used. The 
essential factors of a desirable hopper are given in Chapter VIII. 

Advantages. — When dry mash is fed in the right kind of a 
hopper, it saves much labor. The diet itself is very helpful from 
the standpoint of digestion. It does not require such careful 



214 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

study or attention on the part of the feeder, and it allows the birds 
themselves a greater freedom in arranging and balancing their 
own diet. It also allows of perfect cleanliness in feeding. 

Disadvantages. — This method is wasteful if not fed in the cor- 
rect type of hopper; for this reason great care should be used in 
the making or selection of a hopper. In some instances it has 
been noted that birds, not accustomed to dry-mash feeding for 
a considerable period, eat very little, and do not relish what 
they do eat. This can usually be corrected gradually, and at an 
early age. 

General Usage. — This system is in general use on large com- 
mercial plants. In most cases it is used to supplement the feeding 
of cracked grains in litter. It has supplemented or almost entirely 
taken the place of wet-mash feeding on all egg farms. 

Scratch Feeding of Ground Grains. — This method of feeding is 
very profitably used to supplement the feeding of dry or wet 
mashes. It may also be used as an exclusive ration when birds 
show excessive gain in weight, as it induces a larger amount of 
exercise. When it is desired to check maturity, this method is 
sometimes employed. To get the greatest benefit, the grains 
should be scattered in some good scratching material which should 
be clean and dry and four or more inches deep. It should be coarse 
enough to hide the feed, but not so coarse or bulky that the birds 
cannot move it by scratching to find the grains. Materials often 
used for this purpose are straw, shavings, cut corn fodder, and dry 
leaves. 

Advantages. — There are several advantages of this system of 
scratch feeding. It induces the birds to exercise, thus increasing 
circulation and keeping up vigor. It also keeps them in good flesh, 
especially in the case of old hens, by not allowing them to get too 
fat. It enables the attendant to study the condition of the birds. 
Considerable labor is required in feeding by this method, but the 
general practice of cutting down labor can be carried to an extreme 
by the use of too many automatic or labor-saving devices. This 
daily feeding of grain in litter offers one of the general methods 
whereby the feeder can keep in touch with his flock. 

Disadvantages. — During certain seasons of the year the litter 
may get damp and moldy. After drying, dust is increased in 
the house while the birds are scratching, and this is apt to cause 
the development of certain fungous diseases. This trouble can be 
avoided by the use of clean, sweet litter. 



SYSTEM OF FEEDING 215 

General Usage. — Scratch feeding is used to supplement dry- 
mash feeding on large utility plants, and nearly every such flock 
of adult birds in the entire country is fed at some time of the day 
by this system. 

Hopper Feeding of Cracked Grains. — In some cases it is diffi- 
cult to secure good litter for the floor of the house, or it is desired 
to reduce labor of daily feeding; then it may be well to use large 
hoppers for feeding of cracked or whole grains. For growing chicks 
on the range, the feeding of cracked grains from self-feeding hoppers 
is a very common and efficient practice, greatly reducing the labor 
and increasing efficiency. 

The advantages attendant on this method are the reduction of 
the labor item; and, where no litter is present, it causes the birds 
to exercise to a limited extent. 

Disadvantages. — Hoppers used for this purpose are usually of 
commercial types, and it is found in actual practice that 
they do not always work properly, which results in the birds 
being neglected. In some cases they feed too abundantly. It 
eliminates almost entirely the personal attention of the poultry- 
man, which is so essential. It does not provide enough physical 
exercise. 

General Usage. — This system is rarely used with laying stock, 
but is quite generally used on the range in the rearing of the grow- 
ing chicks. It is sometimes used on utility plants to supplement 
the night feeding of cracked grains in litter. 

The Best System. — For the average laying flock the best system 
to follow, both winter and summer, is a combination of scratch 
feeding of cracked grains in deep litter at night, and the hopper 
feeding of dry mash. This requires the least amount of labor 
consistent with the greatest efficiency and the proper personal 
attention. 

Simple Laying Rations. — Only laying rations will be discussed 
in this case. Rations for other purposes are given in the chapters 
that deal with those particular phases of the work. 

New Jersey Rations. — The following is the New Jersey dry 
mash, with the supplemental rations which are designed for the 
complete feeding of laying hens throughout the winter and the 
modifications necessary for summer feeding. 

The quality of the different brands of meat scrap is very vari- 
able, and should a lower grade with less protein and more fat be 
used it would raise the nutritive ratio slightly. 



216 



PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 



This mash is kept before the birds all the time in large self- 
feeding hoppers. 

Table XL — Dry Mash, Mixture No. 1. 



Kind of feed 


Amount Amount -Q rv 

l' v , . hv matter, 
weight, measure. 


Ash or 
mineral 
matter. 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates Cost, 
plus fat (1913). 
x2M 


Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 
Ground oats. 

Corn meal 

Gluten meal 

Meat scrap, high 

grade 

Alfalfa, cut short 


Lbs. 

200 
200 
200 
100 
100 

100 
100 


Qls. 

3S0 

240 

200 

95 

SO 

^86 
200 


Lbs. 

176.0 

176.0 

178.0 

89.0 

92.0 

39.3 
92.0 


Lbs. 
11.6 

7.6 
6.0 
1.5 

.8 

4.1 
7.4 


Lbs. 
24.2 
25.6 
18.4 
7.9 
25.8 

66.2 
11.0 


Lbs. 

90.6 
121.4 
113.6 

76.4 

65.6 

31.1 
42.3 


$3.20 
3.50 
3.30 
1.65 
1.70 

3.00 
1.60 


Total 

Average to pound 


1,000 


1,281 892.3 

1.28 .892 


39.0 179.1 
.039! .179 


541.0 
.541 


17.95 
.018 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.02. 



The above dry mash is designed especially for the feeding of 
White Leghorns. Where heavier breeds are kept, such as Plymouth 
Rocks or Wyandottes, the tendency will be to take on an excess 
of fat. Under these conditions it is the best policy to restrict the 
amount of mash eaten by leaving the hopper open during the 
afternoon only, thus inducing the birds to work more for the grain 
fed in the litter. 

During the molting season, or in the months of July, August, 
and September, oil meal is substituted for the gluten in the same 
proportion, to hasten the growth of feathers. In the spring, as 
soon as the birds get out on green grass, the alfalfa can be gradually 
omitted. Meat scrap is gradually reduced in amount as soon as 
the birds get out on free range and can find insects and worms. 
The extent to which the above mash can be changed or reduced 
during summer will depend upon the character and amount of 
range which the birds have during that time. 

The following modification of the New Jersey dry mash is very 
economical for summer feeding, the change from one to the other 
being made gradually as soon as the birds are on free range with 
plenty of forage : 



SYSTEM OF FEEDING 217 

Table XII. — Summer Dry Mash, Mixture No. 1A. 



Kind of feed. 


Amount 

by 
weight. 


Amount 

by 
measure. 


Dry 

matter. 


Ash or 
mineral 
matter. 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus fat 
x2M 


Cost. 
(1913). 


Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Ground oats 

Gluten meal 

Meat scrap 


Lbs. 
200 
100 
100 
50 
25 


Qts. 

380 

120 

100 

40 

21 


Lbs. 

176.0 
88.0 
89.0 
46.0 
22.3 


Lbs. 

11.6 

3.8 

3.0 

.4 

1.0 


Lbs. 
24.2 
12.8 

9.2 
12.9 
16.5 


Lbs. 
90.6 
60.7 
56.8 
32.8 
8.0 


$3.20 
1.75 
1.65 

.85 
.75 


Total 

Average to pound 


475 


661 
1.39 


421.3 

.887 


19.8 
.04 


75.6 
.158 


248.9 
.524 


8.20 
.017 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.22. 

As supplemental to the dry mash, the following scratching 
ration of whole grain is fed about 9 o'clock every morning in deep 
litter. Its primary object, aside from its nutritive value, is to 
induce exercise. About five pounds of the scratching ration is fed 
to each 100 birds on the floor of the house or under some shelter, 
where the litter is dry and where there is protection from cold 
winds. 

Table XIII. — Scratching Ration, Mixture A T o. 2. 



Kind of feed. 


Amount 

by 
weight. 


Amount 

by 
measure. 


Dry 

matter. 


Ash or 
mineral 
matter. 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus fat 

x2M- 


Cost. 
(1913). 


Wheat 


Lbs. 

100 
100 


Qts. 
53 

98 


Lbs. 

90 

89 


Lbs. 
1.8 
3.0 


Lbs. 

10.2 
9.2 


Lbs. 

73.0 
56.8 


$2.20 


Clipped oats 


1.93 


Total 

Average to pound 


200 


151 

.755 


179 
.839 


4.8 
.024 


19.4 
.097 


129.8 
.649 


4.13 
.0206 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.6. 



In the afternoon, about four or five o'clock, depending on the 
season, a " night ration " is fed, composed of whole grains and 
cracked grains at the rate of ten pounds to each 100 birds. 

It will be noted that this manner of feeding gives to the birds 
the materials suitable for supplying the heat to the body during 



218 



PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 



the night. The night ration given is designed for White Leghorns; 
when feeding heavier breeds, it is better to eliminate one-half of 
the cracked corn and to substitute barley for the buckwheat. Dur- 
ing the summer months a night ration of equal parts of cracked 
corn, wheat, oats, and barley is given, the amount depending on 
the size and condition of the range. 

Table XIV. — Night Ration, Mixture No. 3. 



j Amount 
Kind of feed. by 

weight. 


Amount- 
by 
measure. 


Dry 
matter. 


Ash or 
mineral 
matter. 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus fat 
x2M 


Cost. 
(1913). 


Lbs. 

Cracked corn. . . . ' 200 
Wheat 100 


Qts. 

120 
53 
98 
66 


Lbs. 

178 
90 
89 

87 


Lbs. 

3.0 
1.8 
3.0 
2.0 


Lbs. 
15.8 
10.2 

9.2 

7.7 


Lbs. 
152.8 

73.0 
56.8 
53.3 


$3.30 
2.20 


Clipped oats 100 
Buckwheat j 100 


1.93 
2.00 


Total 500 

Average to pound 

i 


337 
.674 


444 
.888 


9.8 
.019 


42.9 
.085 


335.9 
.671 


9.43 
.018 



Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.S. 

A good rule in feeding the night ration is to feed all that the 
birds will eat, or rather more, so as to have a little left for them 
to go to work on in the morning. A good feeder will occasionally 
go among the birds at night when they are on the perches and feel 
their crops. If they are not full early in the evening, he will con- 
clude that either the layers are not getting enough or that they 
have lost their appetite. In either case, the defect should be imme- 
diately corrected. 

Twenty birds, if fed dry mash and scratch feed, will receive 
during the winter months the following nutrients per day: 

Lbs. Protein. C.H. plus fat. Cost. 

8.0 1.1 4.87 $0.14 

The yearly cost of feed averages about $1.40 per bird. 

The feeding of some succulent material in addition to this 
ration cannot be too strongly recommended. 

Cornell Rations. — The following complete rations for laying 
hens are recommended by the poultry department of Cornell 
University. 

"The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by weight as whole 
grain. Regulate the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light 
feeding of grain in the morning and about all they will consume at the after- 



SYSTEM OF FEEDING 219 

Table XV. — Whole-Grain Mixture fed Morning and Afternoon in Litter. 



By weight, By measure-, 
winter. winter. 


By weight, 
summer. 


By measure, 
summer. 


60 lbs. wheat 
60 lbs. corn 
30 lbs. oats 
30 lbs. buckwheat 


32 qts. wheat 
36 qts. corn 
30 qts. oats 
20 qts. buckwheat 


60 lbs. wheat 
60 lbs. corn 
30 lbs. oats 


32 qts. wheat 
36 qts. corn 
30 qts. oats 


Table XVI. — Dry Mash fed in a Hopper, open Afternoons only. 


By weight, winter and summer. 


By measure, winter and summer. 


60 lbs. corn meal 
60 lbs. wheat middlings 
30 lbs. wheat bran 
10 lbs. alfalfa meal 
10 lbs. oil meal 
50 lbs. beef scrap 
1 lb. salt 


57 qts. corn meal 
71 qts. wheat middlings 
57 qts. wheat bran 
20 qts. alfalfa meal 

8 qts. oil meal 
43 qts. beef scrap 
H qt. salt 



noon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case of pullets or 
fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and morning feeding to induce 
heavy eating of dry mash, especially in the case of hens. This ration should 
be supplemented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other 
succulent feed, unless running on grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster 
shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green feed should not 
be fed in a frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet, 
clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently 
occur from disease, due to the fowls taking into their bodies, through their 
intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of molds." 

California Rations.- — The following are two dry-mash formulas 
recommended by the California Station: "They are calculated 
for 100 hens a day, and if fed with nine to twelve pounds of grain, 
according to weight of hens, and some green stuff, they will form 
a well-balanced ration. The mash may be fed wet or dry." 





Quarts. 


Pounds. 




Quarts. 


Pounds. 


Bran 


.6.0 


3.0 


Bran 


..4.0 


2.0 


Middlings 


. .5 


.5 


Alfalfa meal 


..1.0 


.5 


Linseed meal O. P 


. .5 


.5 


Corn meal 


..1.0 


1.5 


Gluten feed 


. .8 


1.0 


Shorts 


..2.0 


1.5 


Ground oats 


.1.0 


.75 


Barlev meal 


..1.0 


1.1 


Corn meal 


.1.5 


2.25 


Ground beans. . . . 


..1.0 


1.1 


Beef scrap 


.1.0 


1.50 


Beef scrap 


..1.0 


.5 


Coarse bone meal. 


.0.5 


1.00 


Coarse bone meal. 


... .5 


1.0 



220 PRACTICE OF POULTRY FEEDING 

"Salt should be added to every mash, about an ounce being sufficient. 
Pepper ma}' be added occasionally. Fresh lean meat may be substituted 
for beef scrap in any of the formulas, three quarts of the fresh being equal to 
one of the dried. Cottage cheese may be substituted in the same proportion, 
except that it is advisable not to replace all of the meat, one-half quart beef 
scrap and one and a half quarts cottage cheese being a much better proportion. 
The equivalent in pounds is given for convenience in ordering. The quarts 
represent the amount for 100 hens and may be multiplied or divided ad 
libitum." 

REVIEW. 

1. Give points to consider in the location of the feed house. 

2. Give two important points in the design of the feed house. 

3. Give the special equipment necessary to equip the feed room properly. 

4. Define ration. "What does it include? 

5. Tell of the necessity of having sufficient nutrients in a ration. 
0. Why is a certain proportion with respect to nutrients necessary? 
7. What is the meaning of the term nutritive ratio? Give example. 

S. What is potential energy as related to feeds? How can it be quickly 

determined? 
9. Define balanced ration. 

10. Discuss the need of succulence in a ration. 

11. What is the effect of varying degrees of palat ability? 
1*2. Discuss bulkiness in poultry rations. 

13. What is meant by an economical ration? 

14. Explain how to find the cost price of a pound of protein in any purchased 

feed. Give examples. 

15. How does ease of mixing and storing affect the economy of feeding? 
10. Of what use is personal attention in feeding? 

17. Enumerate the functions of grit, shell, charcoal, and salt. 

IS. Mention four systems of poultry feeding. 

19. Discuss possibilities and usage of each of the four systems. 

20. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

21. Outline the best combination of these systems. 

22. Outline a complete system of feeding laying hens. 

23. Give the rations and amounts for one of the States mentioned in this 

chapter. 

References. — Four Methods of Feeding Early Hatched Pullets, by James 
E. Rice. Cornell Bulletin 249. Feeding for Eggs, by James Dryden, Oregon 
Reading Course, Lesson 3. Feeding for Egg Production, by J. S. Jeffrey, 
North Carolina Bulletin 211. Feeding for Winter Eggs, Pennsylvania Exten- 
sion Circular 11. Feeding Laying Hens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading 
Course, Bulletin 17. Rations for Poultry, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading 
Course, Bulletin IS. Forcing the Moult, by Stewart and Atwood. West 
Virginia Bulletin S3. Methods of Feeding Poultry, in the United States 
Farmers' Bulletin 244. The Forced Moulting of Fowls, in United States 
Farmers' Bulletin 412. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING. 

Poultry Breeding. — By poultry breeding is meant the science 
which treats of the reproduction and improvement of the domestic 
fowl. It may be said to be both a science and an art. It is truly 
a science in so far as it deduces and systematically applies facts 
and principles as they are demonstrated. It is an art in so much 
as the knowledge and experience thus acquired and the principles 
deduced may be utilized for the continued improvement of the 
animals. 

A few and rather hazy suggestions pertaining to the improve- 
ment of fowls have been handed down from remote ages, but most 
of the earlier work on animal breeding was carried on with larger 
and more easily recorded domestic animals. In recent years many 
of the principles which govern successful breeding have become 
better understood, and the knowledge obtained has been more 
thoroughly disseminated than ever before, largely owing to the 
fact that experiment stations are making a special study of this 
science, and in many instances are using poultry as the study 
medium. As a rule, it may be stated that the laws of breeding 
which apply to all animals are equally applicable to poultry. 

Breeding a Complex Problem. — Breeding is not an art which 
can be learned entirely from books or from the study of results 
obtained by a few crossings or matings; it is acquired by experi- 
ence and by the actual study of the progeny resulting from such 
matings, generation after generation, and in large numbers. 

To be successful, one must be familiar with the subject from 
both points of view, theoretical and practical. It is impossible 
to apply principles to a profitable use until they are thoroughly 
understood. These scientific principles have, in great measure, 
been derived directly from the methods of the more successful 
breeders, and hence are fundamental. 

Need of Improvement. — The improvement of the flocks of 
poultry which are found in greater or less numbers on practically 
all American farms has not received the attention which it merits, 
and which the results from such improvement would warrant. The 
breeding of poultry in a practical way has been left almost entirely 

221 



222 



PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 



to the fancier, who keeps a smaller number of birds and aims to 
secure color pattern rather than utility qualities. This tendency 
is changing in recent years, and the value of well-bred birds for 
egg production and market poultry is becoming better appreciated. 

The chief reason for the lack of interest in the improvement 
of poultry has been the fact that most farmers regard the raising 
of poultry as a side issue, and hence give it little consideration. 
Another cause is the erroneous view which many farmers take in 
regarding the value of the products, and the possibilities offered 
through study and improvement, as matters entirely too small to 
deserve attention. 

Many of our most successful keepers still believe that improve- 
ment can best be brought about through feeding, and that selec- 
tion, when practised, is not rigid enough or along the lines which 
would insure direct improvement. 

The birds of any poultry flock, wherever kept for profit, 
should be considered and treated as machines, — living machines, 
which, when given raw material in the form of feed, will transform 
it into finished agricultural products, such as eggs and meat. 
These manufactured products represent great value in small 
bulk, and can be shipped great distances at little cost. In the 
production of market eggs this concentration of the finished product 
is very noticeable. One dozen eggs weighing about twenty-four 
ounces (IJH2 lbs.) contain more human food material than the 
same weight of milk. 

Table XVII. — Composition of Eggs Compared with Milk. 



24 ounces 
(.1V2 lb.) 


Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Fat. 


Dry matter. 


Eggs 

Milk 


Lbs. 

0.99 
1.30 


Lbs. 
0.18 

.01 


Lbs. 

0.16 

.05 


Lbs. 

0.00 

.07 


Lbs. 

0.12 

.05 


Lbs. 

0.46 
.18 



If the domestic hen is to be considered as a machine, and if 
the most profitable returns are to be realized from her, this machine 
must be carefully selected, and trained to the highest degree of 
efficiency. If a bird of a certain type will lay more eggs in a year, 
of larger and more uniform size than another bird, and meet all 
the requirements of the egg market, this type should be given the 
preference by egg producers. Again, if one type or breed of birds 



PROBLEMS OF THE POULTRY BREEDER 223 

produces more and better flesh in a given time, hence yielding a 
larger return when put on the market, this particular type should 
be selected and improved for market poultry. 

The aim should be to choose the type of machine best adapted 
to the desired purpose; then, by breeding and selection, to develop 
this machine into the most economical transformer of raw material 
into the desired product that it is possible to secure. 

Great Aim in Poultry Breeding.— The foremost aim in poultry 
breeding should be the improvement of poultry in those qualities 
which have a definite market value; as, increased egg production, 
quality and quantity of flesh growth, and perfection of color pat- 
tern. All these qualities are associated more or less with perfection 
of proportion or symmetry of the individual, and any improvement 
which is continuous and which progresses toward a given ideal 
will materially improve the general appearance of the progeny 
and conduce to uniformity. 

Problems of the Poultry Breeder. — There are certain questions 
which stand out clearly before the mind of a practical breeder and 
represent the problems which he must attempt to master. With 
our present limited knowledge many of them cannot be definitely 
answered, yet a clear comprehension of the problems involved will 
lead to a better understanding of the subject and make possible 
a systematic plan. These problems may be grouped as follows: 

1. To what extent are the characteristics of the particular 
individual at maturity due to its ancestry or heredity, and to what 
extent are they due to environmental conditions, such as feed, 
climate, and housing? 

2. What is the exact appearance which inherited characteristics 
assume when transmitted to future generations? 

3. May characteristics of the individual due to environment 
be transmitted? 

4. What are the possibilities of controlling variation through 
selection? 

5. Does improvement in egg production come about by raising 
the standard absolutely, or is the general average raised by elimi- 
nating the poorer producers? That is, is it possible to improve 
the best, or must the mass be brought up to a higher level? 

6. What are the proper standards in selecting for a definite 
purpose? 

7. To what extent can individual performance be made the 
basis for selection? 



224 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

8. What is the relative influence of sire and dam upon trans- 
mitted characteristics, — sajr in egg production? 

9. To what extent does the condition of parents at the time of 
service affect the offspring? 

10. To what extent may conditions previous to and during 
incubation affect the offspring? 

11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding, 
line breeding, and out-crossing? 

12. How can definite and practical results be secured with the 
least expenditure of time and numbers? 

Upon the answers to many of these problems depend the future 
methods of poultry breeding. Our information is complete on 
many points, yet other scientific knowledge is wanting. Much 
labor is being expended in the solving of these problems; mean- 
while the breeder must utilize the material at hand as best he may. 
The summary following in this chapter will, in a general way, cover 
the present knowledge of the subject. 

Basis of Value in Poultry. — The basis of value in poultry keep- 
ing is the power of the individual to produce a given product at 
a profit. The relative value of the individual depends upon its 
adaptation to one or more particular uses and the returns which 
it yields above the feed consumed. For example, the best laying 
hen is the one which converts the largest amount of feed into eggs 
of the best qualit}^ with the least possible waste of the feed con- 
sumed. While a large consumption of feed is necessary to heavy 
production, it is not in itself a guarantee of heavy production. 
The mongrel hen is often a heavy consumer of feed; but, owing 
to the fact that her bodily functions are not developed sufficiently 
to turn every atom of feed not required for maintenance into eggs, 
she does not yield a profit. A certain amount of feed is required 
to maintain the body, and observation proves that the individual 
which consumes the most feed in proportion to its live weight will, 
in the majority of cases, be the most profitable; hence the necessity 
of studying individuals closely, and breeding from those which 
possess the qualities to be desired in their young. 

The records of a few noted hens show what breeding and selec- 
tion will do ; and also show that in order to increase the productive, 
or basic, value of poultry, one must study the individuality of his 
flock, and mate from the very best, with the idea of eliminating 
the poorer birds and of intensifying in the progeny the desired 
qualities which are pronounced in the selected parents. 



FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 225 

Fundamental Principles. — As a science, breeding is both com- 
plex and varied. This is in part due to the obscurity surrounding- 
many of the phenomena, and to the great degree of variation in 
results obtained under apparently the same conditions, also in part 
to the influence which the purity of the individual exerts, as shown 
in the results of future transmission. 

Fortunately, however, the fundamental principles of the science 
of breeding, the complete understanding of which is essential to 
success in practical breeding, are few in number, and readily under- 
stood. These principles are as follows: 

1. Decide upon a standard of excellence, which may be either 
real or imaginary, and always breed toward it. 

2. Always breed from parents both of whom conform as closely 
as possible to this standard. 

3. Always breed from parents which are as purely bred as it 
is possible to obtain them, — that is, birds which have long been 
bred without the addition of alien blood. 

4. Study the individuals, and endeavor to mate them so that 
the faults of the parents will be corrected in the offspring. 

5. Practise a rigorous selection from hatching time to maturity, 
and especially when mating the breeding hens. 

6. Always consider environment, such as housing and feeding 
conditions. 

Breeding toward a standard of excellence gives the breeder a 
guide by means of which he can frequently estimate his progress. 
By following this guide without deviation definite results may be 
much more quickly attained. The standard may be written or it 
may be carried in the mind of the one engaged in breeding. In 
the former case, one prepared by an association is generally used. 
At the present time the American Poultry Association publishes 
the " American Standard of Perfection," in which are given the 
requirements of all standard-bred poultry. In the absence of this 
standard the high excellence and uniformity now attained, as seen 
at the large poultry shows, would be impossible. 

The necessity of breeding only from parents which conform as 
nearly as possible to the standard is based on the law of heredity 
that like produces like, and that, in order to secure a given progeny, 
the more nearly the parents conform to the standard the greater 
are the chances that the offspring will develop the desired qualities. 

The study of the science of breeding has shown that with an 
increased admixture of alien or foreign blood there is always a pro- 
15 



226 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

portionately greater variation in the transmitted qualities; hence 
the necessity of breeding from parents as purely bred as it is pos- 
sible to obtain them. By eliminating alien blood the desired prop- 
erties become dominant, so to speak; that is, they become intensi- 
fied, and there are fewer contending characteristics to crowd them 
out. The longer a family of individuals can be bred purely, so 
much more powerful will its dominant traits become. (The mating 
and selection of individuals is discussed in the next chapter.) 

The influence of environment on future generations is im- 
portant. All conditions and operations included in the care 
and management of birds will more or less influence the indi- 
vidual, and also leave their mark upon the offspring; lack of 
proper environment may tear down and soon destroy all that has 
been accomplished by years of hard work in selection and breed- 
ing ; hence the necessity of understanding the natural requirements 
of the birds before practising or experimenting with the laws of 
breeding. 

Controlling Factors. — The influences which are active in the 
propagation or breeding of poultry are numerous and varied. 
They may be grouped under three heads : 

All characteristics which are transmitted from parent to off- 
spring, this group being termed inheritance. 

All characteristics which are due to external conditions sur- 
rounding the individual, these being termed environment. 

All characteristics which are functional in nature, and in many 
cases influenced by man's activities. In demonstration these func- 
tions are nearly all influenced directly by man, while in the wild 
state they are given freedom of exercise. This group may be 
termed functional activities. 

Inheritance. — Inheritance, in the sense here used, is a much 
broader term than when employed to define the law of heredity. 
It embraces all the powers, qualities, and characteristics which are 
transmitted from the parents to the progeny through the egg, the 
combining or merging of traits possessed by both male and female 
into one, and the new characteristics of the resulting chicks. 

This factor of inheritance affects or influences a great variety 
of conditions. Among these are the shape and size of the body, 
and the quality and color pattern of the plumage; all internal 
bodily functions, such as the development of the digestive system, 
the power of the circulatory system, and the capacity of the 
respiratory system ; the texture and structure of muscles, bones, and 



CONTROLLING FACTORS 227 

ligaments. It also affects the habits of the future progeny, 
their capacity for consuming feed, and indirectly their power of 
reproduction. 

Disease is both directly and indirectly transmitted. In the 
former case diseases which attack the reproductive organs, such 
as white diarrhoea, are directly transmitted through the egg to 
the resulting offspring. In other instances diseases, such as tuber- 
culosis and cholera, by affecting the parent tend to generate in 
the progeny a weakness of that organ or group of organs which 
makes the offspring more susceptible to the infection of that par- 
ticular disease. The specific germs of such diseases are not in- 
herited, yet the predisposition is. It is this factor of inheritance 
which marks out an orderly and progressive path for the develop- 
ment of poultry breeding, and enables the fancier and utility 
breeders to show every year a systematic advance in the methods 
of mating their best birds. 

Environment.- — From the time the egg is laid it is susceptible 
to external conditions, such as temperature, moisture, and physical 
changes. These factors are entirely different from the group pre- 
viously mentioned, as they can be directly influenced or regulated 
by man. If the embryo is to develop normally and regularly during 
the incubation period, and the chick be successfully hatched, these 
external factors of temperature, moisture, and purity of air, as well 
as certain physical changes, must all be regulated or borne in mind. 

The external conditions, such as shelter and feed, which exist 
immediately after hatching, influence to a great extent the charac- 
teristics of the progeny at maturity, and they affect indirectly the 
future breeding possibilities of the individual. 

All the problems of environment can be most safely solved by 
planning everything with a view to the comfort of the birds; other- 
wise, their growth will not be satisfactory, nor can they be expected 
to produce a profitable quantity of eggs. 

Cleanliness and sanitary surroundings are very essential, as 
they tend to minimize the danger of communicable diseases and 
create an atmosphere of contentment. 

Maintenance of favorable environment is very important during 
the brooding and rearing period, for a low brooder temperature 
will chill the young and cause crowding, which will result in weakly 
developed chicks, if not in their immediate death. Later, during 
the growing period and when on the range, they need a large area 
of shade, and an abundance of nourishment, including green feed, 



228 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

if the blood elements which they inherited from their parents are 
to be given an opportunity for full development. 

Another important factor in the environment is the supply of 
feed, which must be sufficient in amount, wholesome, and of the 
right degree of concentration. Instances have been known in 
which the excessive forcing of mature birds during their first laying 
season had so weakened their vitality that their records in egg pro- 
duction were not nearly as high as those of their parents, whereas, 
after selected mating and breeding, they should have excelled them 
if conditions had been right. Birds which are kept by man in a 
state of domestication are dependent upon him for shelter and 
feed, which largely make up their environment, and a careful and 
proper regulation of this is essential if the inherited qualities are 
to be given opportunity for their highest development. 

Functional Activities. — From the time the chick is hatched, the 
degree of development which it will ultimately attain depends in 
large measure upon the extent to which it performs its normal 
bodily functions. The normal activity of an organ increases its 
power to perform its function in a healthy and normal manner. 
For example, the blacksmith by the constant use of his right arm 
gradually attains a greater muscular development in this than in 
the other arm which does not get this regular and systematic 
exercise. In a similar way the poultry man may, by careful hand- 
ling and feeding of his birds and by allowing them sufficient exer- 
cise, keep them in a normal and healthy condition. Should he 
restrict their exercise, and increase the concentrated feed stuffs, 
such as corn meal, the birds would soon become lazy, take on 
excessive fat, and gradually become poorer and poorer layers until 
the function would finally cease. If the conditions were not cor- 
rected, the functional activities of the body would become con- 
gested and clogged and death would result. 

In the same way it is possible to develop excessively the growth 
and maturity of certain organs; as, for instance, in the forcing of 
pullets for early maturity. The egg-forming organs are stimulated 
to activity before they attain their normal development, and the 
resulting eggs are small in size, in many instances containing weak 
germs, especially if the pullets are mated to males of early devel- 
opment. Their 'eggs when hatched will produce chicks small in 
size and of light weight, many of them cripples and weaklings. 
Not only will the eggs be small, but the bird itself, because of its 
early maturity, will never attain the size and shape which would 



LAW OF HEREDITY 229 

have been possible with a slower bodily development and later 
maturity. Thus we see the folly of attempting to force early laying 
at the expense of other functions of the body. The aim should 
be to give the bodily functions every incentive to healthy, normal 
growth and maturity, after which time, with the strength and vital- 
ity incident to strong functional activity, the greatest usefulness 
of the individual can be expected. 

Laws of Breeding. — There are certain definite laws which 
govern breeding, but in the science of breeding many principles 
and interpretations either remain undiscovered or cannot in every 
instance be explained. The purpose in the following sections will 
be to outline some of the more fundamental laws, and assist the 
student to such an understanding of the knowledge of to-day as 
will enable him to pursue the art of breeding with a clearer insight 
and with greater certainty of success. 

Many of the laws or rules of breeding which have been expressed 
scientifically during the last two hundred years had been previously 
handed down from generation to generation in traditional form . The 
fact that early statistics were not kept in definite form militated 
against the general diffusion of knowledge of results, and is partly re- 
sponsible for the slow development made in the study and progress of 
the science of breeding prior to the last two centuries. In recent 
years more progress has been made and many principles established. 

Law of Heredity. — The law of heredity as usually stated is: 
Like begets like. It implies that the characteristics of the parent 
will appear in a more or less marked degree in the offspring, and 
refers directly to the transmission of individual characteristics to 
future generations. Heredity is too broad a term to apply merely 
to one individual parent or offspring, but should include a group 
of individuals which constitute the parentage, as well as a group 
of offspring. The law of heredity and the principles for which it 
stands are fundamental to all breeding operations. The poultry 
breeder must become familiar with all that concerns preceding 
generations in order properly to plan for and achieve results in 
succeeding generations. The difficult problem confronting the 
student is to determine or predict to what degree the progeny 
will resemble the parent, since many factors are at work which 
may cause variations from the type, and also produce entirely 
new traits and characteristics. 

Practical Examples. — When applied to classes of poultry, the 
law that " like begets like " finds ample illustration in the dis- 



230 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

tinctive peculiarities common to different breeds. Each of the 
eleven different groups into which all birds have been divided has 
its distinctive peculiarities. These relate to physical form, color, 
and functional development. This is further seen in the division 
and subdivision of each breed into varieties. So strong may be 
the resemblance between them that it is often possible, from a 
flock of considerable number, to pick out daughters or, more often, 
sons from a given mating, because they possess certain family or 
mating characteristics peculiar to one or both of the parents. 
These resemblances are not accidental, but are the direct expres- 
sion of this, the greatest law of breeding. 

Benefits from this Law. — The actual benefits from this law may 
be grouped into three divisions: 

It makes possible the improvement of poultry by breeding to a 
fixed standard. The highest degree of perfection which it is pos- 
sible to attain will probably never be reached so long as the stand- 
ard of excellence is only gradually raised. 

It enables breeders to maintain improvement after it is once 
established. Everywhere in nature there is a strong tendency 
toward deterioration, and the proper manipulation of individuals 
by the action of this law will aid in checking this retrograde tend- 
ency. Poultry, if neglected for even one or two generations, are 
especially susceptible to this process of deterioration, the degree 
depending upon the vitality and purity of the blood when the race 
was at its best. 

By the action of this law it is possible to fix new types and 
standards after they have once been created by a selection of 
variants. The tendency of poultry breeding in the past has been 
to attempt to create new breeds. In many cases the breeder did 
not clearly understand just what type he was after, or the exact 
value of a desired characteristic, could it be secured. The result 
is that we have to-day a great many breeds of poultry which are 
duplicates in many respects. The great need in the immediate 
future is the improvement of well-established breeds rather than 
the creation of new ones. 

Heredity in Cross Breeds. — By hybridizing is meant the crossing 
of two varieties, or breeds, the object being to produce a combi- 
nation of the desirable qualities of the two. At some future time 
the qualities of three or more breeds may be combined. For ex- 
ample, let us suppose that a breeder who had produced an excellent 
strain of single-comb White Leghorns found that, owing to the 



MENDEL'S LAW 231 

excessive size of the comb and its becoming frosted, the produc- 
tivity of the individuals was impaired. He desired to remedy this 
by replacing the single comb with a pea comb, but in order to do 
this it would be necessary to cross his birds with Indian Games 
possessing finely developed pea combs. The pea-comb trait 
would be fixed in the early generations, since this is a dominant 
character. It would require, however, many generations of breed- 
ing and selection to eliminate the color pattern which was brought 
into the flock by the intermixture of the game blood. 

In a study of characters which may possibly result from hybrid- 
izing and the frequency of their occurrence, knowledge of Mendel's 
law will be helpful. 

Mendel's Law.- — Mendel's law states that, when crossed forms 
or hybrids are bred together the opposing characters possessed 
by the original parents tend to combine in definite proportion. 
The offspring from such hybrid individuals (AB) will assume the 
algebraic form A 2 +2 AB+B 2 . In the formula A represents one 
of the contrasting characters, while B represents the opposite 
trait. This formula means, in numbers, that, out of every 100 
chicks resulting from a cross, twenty-five will possess one of the 
characters, or will be pure A, twenty-five will be pure B, while 
the remaining fifty (represented by the figures 2 AB) will be a 
mixture of the two opposing characters. 

Mendel's law also states that where there is a pair of contrast- 
ing characters, — for example, single comb and rose comb, — one 
will be dominant over the other, the result being that a majority 
of the progeny will show this dominant character. The other 
opposing character is termed recessive, for it recedes from view in 
the presence of the stronger or more prominent one. Dominance 
of a character does not imply that the recessive one is absent, 
but simply that in the development of the new individual the 
dominant character is bound to appear. A pigmented condition 
of the plumage is dominant over absence of pigment; an extra 
toe is dominant over a normal number; feathers on the shanks 
are dominant over their absence, the rose comb over the single 
comb, and so on through a great variety of characters. Only one 
pair of contrasting characters is to be considered at any one time. 
This second phase of Mendel's law may be expressed by the fol- 
lowing formula: 

D 2 +2 Dr+R 2 

H+V2 +H 



232 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

D, being the dominant character, will be present in three- 
fourths of the progeny. In one-fourth of the progeny represented 
by D 2 , the character will be pure. In one-half represented by 
2 Dr, it will be mixed with the recessive, but, owing to its 
dominance, will suppress the recessive (as to appearance). The 
other one-fourth of the progeny, R 2 , will have only the recessive 
character. 

If the breeding of individuals resulting from the first cross be 
continued, interesting phenomena of this law will appear. D 2 
and R 2 will continue indefinitely to breed true if bred to them- 
selves, as they respectively contain only pure dominant and pure 
recessive characters. Mendel's law refers specially to the hybrids 
or the apparently crossed portion of the progeny represented 
by 2 Dr. 

When individuals of the Dr group are bred together, their 
offspring will in turn be split in the same algebraic ratio of 

D 2 +2 Dr+R- 



74 



+ l A + l A 



which was apparent in the first cross when pure forms were allowed 
to breed together. This ratio will continue indefinitely when the 
hybrids of future generations are bred together. The same will 
hold true of the dominant and recessive characters possessed by 
the hybrids, — namely, that the dominant character will always 
show in the Dr group even when the recessive is also present. 
In this second generation D 2 and R 2 are pure and will breed pure. 
(They are technically called homozygotes.) The other individuals 
resulting from the same cross, represented by the letters 2 Dr, 
are hybrids like their parents (and are technically called hetero- 
zygotes). 

From the above discussion it will be seen that, since the Dr 
group, or mixed group, always exhibit the dominant character, it 
is often a difficult problem to differentiate them from the dominant 
group D 2 

To test a dominant, mate it to a recessive, and if all the offspring 
are pure dominants no recessive character will appear. If this 
parent is not pure, but mixed, the offspring will be one-half domi- 
nant and one-half recessive, having followed the combination: 
(Dr) + (RR). 

All hybrids which produce only pure dominant characters may 



INHERITANCE OF FECUNDITY 233 

be used to start a pure race with such characters; hence, by the 
elimination of one recessive character at a time, it is possible to 
breed a race with special desired characters. 

Mendel's law, from its complexity and apparent confusion, will 
not be of definite value to the average farm poultry man, yet it 
is essential that the student have a clear understanding of the 
subject in order that the behavior of characteristics in transmission 
can be better appreciated. The principles which the law presents 
have led to other important discoveries in the phenomena of 
breeding. Some of Mendel's deductions in his original records are 
discredited, owing to faulty analysis, yet the results of his work 
are more far-reaching than those attained by any other one man. 

Inheritance of Fecundity.- — The transmission of the character 
of producing a large quantity of eggs is one of the most important 
problems before the poultry breeder, and some valuable work is 
being done at agricultural experiment stations. 

The discussions pertaining to the inheritance of fecundity, or 
egg production, as given here are based upon the work of Dr. 
Raymond Pearl at the Maine Station. Quotations and facts are 
taken from his papers on the subject; more especially, Maine 
Bulletin 192, 

Among the leading biologists who are at present making a study 
of breeding problems, two general views are held as to certain funda- 
mental principles of heredity: (1) The " statistical " conception of 
inheritance, and (2) the " genotype " conception of inheritance. 

The statistical conception of inheritance is that point of view 
which assumes, either by direct assertion or by implication, that 
all variations are of equal significance, and consequently that all 
may be treated statistically as one homogeneous mass, provided 
that they conform to purely statistical laws of similarity. 

In studying heredity in the past, the mistake has been made 
of noting a few individuals only, and these exceptional cases have 
often led to conclusions which are worse than useless because of 
their extreme range of variability. The advocates of this line of 
study use this as an argument in favor of their point of view, and 
make the statement that to study inheritance with any degree of 
reliability the race as a whole must be considered, and not simply 
the individuals which go to make it up. This method is compara- 
tively new, especially when applied to poultry, and necessitates 
a large mass of material representing sufficiently large numbers 
of the breed under consideration to be actually representative. 



234 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

The most extensive statistical work which has been carried on 
in America is that which was done at the Maine Station from 1898 
to 1907. Here the practice was followed of breeding continuously, 
year after year, from the heaviest layers, regardless of all other 
considerations except vigor and health. The final results of this 
mass selection, after nine years' work, did not show that mass 
selection from high producers of eggs, on the basis of the trap-nest 
records of the individuals, brought about continuous improvement 
in the average flock production, or that the progeny from the 
heaviest layers were better producers than those from birds selected 
from the general flock. These maybe considered "negative results." 

The genotype conception of heredity, on the other hand, lays 
down the fundamental truth, firmly based on breeding experience, 
that two sorts of variations can be distinguished : 

1. Those variations that are represented in the germinal matter, 
and are inherited without substantial modifications, as in pure lines. 

2. Those characters that are somatic * are not inherited. This 
group is not connected with germinal matter, but with the soma 
or body proper. 

It is only possible by actual breeding tests to ascertain to just 
which group a given variation belongs. 

The keynote to this latter conception of inheritance of fecun- 
dity comes from the analysis of individual pedigrees, by which 
method the behavior of each individual in inheritance can be de- 
termined. The leading thought in this new conception is, that 
the germ cell (egg or sperm) and not the body (or soma) is the fac- 
tor of primary importance in generation. For example, the indi- 
vidual's body (somatic) characteristics are not determined by the 
body characteristics of its parents, but by the composition or con- 
stituents of the parental germ cells or gametes. Thus the size of 
a hen is not determined by the size of its parents, but by the 
gametic construction of the latter. Recent practical applications 
of this conception of the inheritance of fecundity have shown : 

1. That the gametic make-up of the male is of greater im- 
portance than that of the female; since, in the average flock, the 



*"For the student not familiar with the technical terms of biology it may 
be said that somatic is a term used to designate those characters of the organ- 
ism which pertain to all parts except the reproductive or germ cells. The 
reproductive cells are called gametes, and the adjective gametic means per- 
taining to germ cells, in opposition to somatic, which means pertaining to 
any or all parts of the organism other than the germ cells." 



LAW OF VARIATION 235 

gametic constitution of the male is perceptible in all the progeny, 
while that of the female appears in a smaller percentage of cases. 

2. That it is possible systematically to breed males with a high 
productive gametic constitution. 

3. That in breeding to increase egg laying the production has 
been divided into two kinds, — namely, (a) normal or natural produc- 
tion, which takes place during the natural breeding season or spring 
months, the average in this period being about thirty eggs ; and (6) 
excess laying period, which is possessed by fewer birds, and which 
represents from 100 to 175 eggs laid during the fall and winter. The 
problem, then, is how to breed birds which shall possess in their 
gametic make-up germ cells representing both of these periods. 

4. That improvement in egg production comes about by raising 
the general average through elimination of the poor producers; 
or, in other words, by bringing the mass to a higher level, and not 
to any great extent by raising the standard and improving the best. 

5. That in order to accomplish this improvement, as above 
outlined, it is necessary to know what has been the individual 
performance of the members of the flock for a number of genera- 
tions in succession, and this can only be determined by keeping 
small breeding pens and by trap nesting. 

While the application of the genotype theory is comparatively 
new, studies so far are in entire accord with it. They indicate, 
first, that fecundity in fowls is transmitted; second, that this 
inheritance is in accord with the genotype concept, even where it 
is almost impossible to establish true blood lines. 

Law of Variation. — This law may be defined as the tendency of 
individuals to produce progeny which differ in type from either par- 
ent. It is constantly working in opposition to the law of heredity, 
and might be expressed as the law that " like does not produce like." 

In the light of present knowledge, the causes of variations are 
in many cases obscure. It will be noted, however that in many 
cases the progeny are not like the parent. In some instances the 
differences may be slight and exhibited only in one or two charac- 
ters, while in others the variations may be very marked and cover 
a great variety of traits and forms. As applied to poultry two 
general principles are held: 

1. That all characters, whether structural or functional, are 
exceedingly variable. 

2. That ordinary variation is the result of a change in the rela- 
tions between a number of closely associated characters brought 



236 



PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 



about by an alteration in one or more of them. This variation 
is not caused by, nor is it the result of, the introduction of an 
absolutely new character. 

The fact that individuals do vary makes improvement possible 
through selection and breeding which would otherwise be impos- 
sible. Indeed, without this factor there would be no chance for 
either improvement or deterioration; the type would be fixed in 
all its characteristics. 

Variations are of two kinds, — those which increase the useful- 
ness of the individual and those which are undesirable or create 




Fig. 120. 



-Barred Plymouth Rock chicks from the same mating and of tl 
showing morphological variation. 



e same age, 



an inferior condition. It is the duty and purpose of the breeder 
to select and intensify desirable variations whenever possible. 

Types of Variation. — The unit of variability is not the individ- 
ual, but the breed; and different individuals in the same group 
are made up of different combinations of the same characteristics. 
The real unit of variation is, then, the racial characteristic, but 
the individual must be made the unit of selection. Four distinct 
types of variation have been found, and a clear perception of 
these is necessary for the intelligent study of the causes and behav- 
ior of variations. These types are (1) morphological, (2) sub- 
stantive, (3) meristic, and (4) functional. 

Morphological variation has to do with differences in form or 



TYPES OF VARIATION 



237 



size which are quantitative in character. This type of variation 
is very common, a simple example being two chicks which are 
exactly alike except that one is larger than the other (Fig. 120). 
In this instance there is no difference in the characteristics of the 
two individuals," but merely the fact that in one growth had been 
more rapid and proceeded farther than in the other. This type 
of variation is especially important in breeding for large-sized 
birds for market poultry. 

Substantive variation is shown by differences in the quality of 
different individuals as distinct from mere size and form. Such 




Fig. 121. — Two birds of the same parentage, showing variation in color only- 
example of substantive variation. 



variations are qualitative rather than quantitative in nature. This 
type of variation refers to the constitution or nature of the indi- 
vidual, and is manifested by differences between individuals of 
the same breed (Fig. 121) and between different breeds. In regard 
to the character of flesh, some are hard (Games) and others soft 
(Brahmas). In the quality and taste of the meat, wild and domes- 
tic species differ widely. 

Birds of the same breed differ in their power to withstand cold. 
Individuals differ as to their power to resist certain communicable 
diseases. 



238 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

Variations in color are dependent upon quality and are based 
upon certain chemical constituents in the feathers, or upon the 
refraction and reflection of light due to the character of the surfaces. 
Substantive variations are undoubtedly of the greatest service 
in poultry breeding. They are closely associated with efficiency, 
utility, color pattern, quality of flesh and bone, color of flesh 
and skin. 

Meristic variation represents alternations in the form or in 
the repetition of parts. It usually manifests itself by a departure 

from the normal systemat- 
ic or specific plan of the 
birds. For example, the 
normal chicken has two 
legs ; the addition of other 
legs would constitute a 
meristic variation in the 
type (Fig. 122). Meristic 
variations are of little eco- 
nomic importance, as they 
usually appear as abnor- 
malities which have no 

Fig. 122.— Chick with four legs— an example of practical Value. To the 
meristic variation. . , . » •, . , ,, 

student of biology they 
open up a vast field concerning the real nature of living matter. 

Functional variation relates to alteration in the normal activity 
of the various organs or parts of the bird, such as muscular activity, 
glandular secretions, and the like (Fig. 123). It has to do, not with 
the form of the organs, but with their functions. The best examples 
of functional variation are the individual variation in egg produc- 
tion in females and the variation in the prepotency of males and 
their power to fertilize a given number of eggs. Functional activi- 
ties are influenced, and variations caused, by many factors, among 
the more important of which are exercise, feed, improper environ- 
ment, and care. All of these should be regulated by the careful 
poultry breeder, if his efforts in mating and breeding are to be 
followed by the fullest development and improvement. 

Mutations. — Mutations, as distinct from ordinary variations, 
may be described as unlooked-for or accidental deviations from 
type. The new type formed is not the result of slow continuous 
selection and fluctuation, but, with no intermediate stage between 
the old type and the new, there is a sudden change of form. Muta- 




TYPES OF VARIATION 239 

tions are commonly called " sports "; they are of little economic 
value, owing to the impossibility of predicting their appearance 
and to the readiness with which they disappear. If inbred with 
the parent stock they frequently cease to reproduce. The better 
method for improvement is the slow one of gradual selection 
from time to time of all variations which tend toward the ideal 




Fig. 123. — Eggs of different size, showing functional variation. Upper and lower 
rows laid by different hens. The difference in size is a result of functional variation due to 
varying rapidity in the development of the ovum and variations in glandular secretions in 
the oviduct. 

type. A typical example of mutation is the rumpless or tailless 
bird (Fig. 124), which shows an inability to reproduce when 
closely bred, and when bred to tailed birds produces very few 
rumpless progeny. 

Causes of Variation. — All variations are influenced to a greater 
or less degree by two groups of causes, — namely, internal and 
external. Accurate knowledge pertaining to this first group of 
influences is so limited, and the subject so complex, that it is of 



240 



PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 



little value to the poultry breeder. The small breeder, and even 
the casual observer, cannot, however, fail to note the great 
variation in breeds of poultry owing to diverse conditions in their 
environment. By this is meant all the external conditions of 
their life; as feed, climate, housing, enemies, and especially with 
young growing birds, their range. All internal processes of devel- 
opment are dependent upon external influences for their natural 
expression ; hence the breeder has every incentive to create exter- 
nal conditions which will conduce to the growth and highest 




Fig. 124. — Rumpless birds — a common example of spontaneous variation or mutation. 



development of the individual, and these conditions will in them- 
selves contribute to the development of the particular type or 
variation which is desired. 

Atavism. — By atavism is meant the invariable tendency of 
individuals to revert to the original type. It is sometimes called 
reversion, retrogression, or breeding back. It differs from the law 
of heredity in the fact that the characters cropping out represent 
ancestry more or less remote rather than that near at hand. An 
excellent example of atavism is the frequent hatching of black 
offspring from apparently pure-bred Barred Plymouth Rock 
matings. This is a reversion in type to the original Black Java 



LAW OF CORRELATION 241 

hen which was the female ancestor of the Barred Plymouth Rock 
breed. Atavism may be shown in form, color, or functional activi- 
ties. Its tendencies are of two kinds: 

1. Those characteristics which are apparently lost but which 
crop out in pure birds after many years or generations of straight 
breeding. 

2. Those outcropping characteristics which appear in the 
descendants of crossbred birds, and which have not previously 
shown themselves in any descendants of the cross or which soon 
disappeared after the original cross. 

The prevalence of either of these tendencies is governed or 
largely influenced by the following factors: 

1. The degree of purity, or the time elapsed since pure breed- 
ing was begun. The more generations there have been of pure 
breeding, the less likelihood is there of reversion to show. 

2. The purity of breeding of either parent when new blood is 
introduced for desired vigor and vitality. It is safest practice to 
do one's own breeding so far as possible, as when purchasing alien 
males there can be no certainty of their purity with respect to 
certain desirable traits. 

3. Lack of prepotency in either or both parents permits rever- 
sion to crop out, because they lack the power to subdue latent 
characteristics. 

The results which atavism may accomplish are of no practical 
value to the breeder. But a knowledge of its workings convinces 
him of the folly of using grade sires of unknown ancestry in breed- 
ing for either eggs or meat purposes, also that to produce definite 
results and to develop a pure line of standard-bred poultry he 
must avoid crossing. 

Law of Correlation. — By correlation is meant the relation which 
exists between the form and functions of various organs of the 
bird's body. Correlation exists between all forms of animal life 
and makes possible their systematic classification. 

Poultry offers an exceptionally fertile field for the study of 
correlated features, as they have many variable and easily defined 
parts. Some of the following are especially interesting correl- 
atives. The form and size of the individual is often proportional 
to the form and size of its parts. For example, a bird with a long 
neck is very apt to be " rangy " throughout, with long body, legs, 
and head. The reverse is also true, and a bird with short, compact 
body and neck usually has short, stout legs, back, and head. 

16 



242 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

There is also a relation between the color of the comb and 
wattles and the health and vigor of the bird, the latter being asso- 
ciated with a bright red comb, and disease or lack of vigor with 
a dull color or lack of color. 

In different breeds there is a definite relation. between the size 
and weight of the body and the development of wings. In the 
lighter breeds this results in powers of flight which are lacking in 
the heavier breeds. 

Many false notions as to correlation are often advanced. For 
instance, there is a belief that the color of the skin indicates the 
quality and flavor of the flesh; that the color of eggs hells influences 
the quality of the contents; that white birds are often of weaker 
constitution than pigmented birds, — all of these are without sub- 
stantial proof. 

Body Character and Functional Activity. — Poultry breeders and 
experimenters have for a number of years persistently endeavored 
to find some correlation between egg production and some readily 
detected external characteristics, but with little success. As was 
previously stated, egg production seems to be an inherited func- 
tion based on the gametic constitution of the individual, and has 
not been consistently indicated by any other factor. A bright red 
comb, full bright eyes, erect carriage, compact and solid body are 
all signs of the vigor and vitality which are necessary for heavy 
egg production, but none can be said to be always associated 
with it. 

The author has noted a consistent relation between shape of 
barrel or body and the power of reproduction. Heavy egg pro- 
duction was found to be associated with great depth and breadth 
of body in proportion to its length. There is need for much 
statistical work to test such a relationship, and accurate results 
cannot be claimed until a great number of individuals have been 
studied. Wherever it is possible to associate certain external 
features with functional activity or vitality or constitution, it is 
a simple matter to put into practice a rigid selection, — using only 
birds which show this external character. 

Prepotency. — By prepotency is meant the increased power 
which one parent has over the other of imparting its characteristics 
to the offspring. It is really the power which an individual has 
to transmit its own characteristics. This question of prepotency 
is of the utmost value to the breeder, because of the direct influence 
which it is bound to have upon the improvement of his flock, 



REVIEW 243 

whether for meat or fancy points. An individual may be all that 
could be desired with respect to certain characteristics, yet might 
not transmit these particular traits to its progeny because it lacks 
prepotency. 

Certain breeds are especially prepotent with regard to some 
well-defined characteristics; for example, Games, when crossed 
with other breeds, transmit their distinctive traits to a large per- 
centage of the progeny. 

Prepotency in individuals varies greatly, and is indicated both 
by the resemblance of the progeny to the parent and to one another. 
Prepotency is increased in the individual and in the breeds with 
increased purity of blood, stronger constitutional vigor, and in- 
breeding. 

Sex Limitation. — The power of one sex to transmit character- 
istics, and the limitation of the other sex in the same respect, 
is a disputed point among the closest students. In the light 
of recent work the general opinion seems to be that there is 
such a difference between sexes, and that it is very important in 
breeding poultry either for color pattern or for egg production. 
In egg production the male parent is believed to have the 
greater transmitting power. 

REVIEW. 

1. Define poultry breeding. 

2. In what respect is this science a complex one? 

3. Point out some facts which call for marked improvement in our breeds. 

4. Compare the composition of milk and eggs. 

5. What is the chief aim of the poultry breeder? 

6. Enumerate some of the problems which are confronting the poultry breeder. 

7. What is the basis of value in poultry? 

8. Enumerate and discuss six fundamental principles which underlie pro- 

gressive breeding. 

9. Define three fundamental factors which affect all individuals in greater 

or less degree. 

10. Discuss environment and its relation to all progeny. 

11. Discuss the effect of functional activities upon the individual and its 

offspring. 

12. State briefly the development of the laws of breeding. 

13. Define the law of heredity and give a practical example. 

14. Discuss three direct benefits to be derived from the action of this law. 

15. Define crossbreeding or hybridizing. 

16. What is the first assertion of Mendel's law? 

17. Discuss the influence of a dominant character when a cross is made. 

Explain with equation, according to Mendel's law. 



244 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 

18. Explain procedure in testing an individual to determine its purity of 

breeding. 

19. Define fecundity. 

20. Outline two views now held as to the transmission of fecundity. 

21. Enumerate five points which cover the practical application of the teach- 

ing of inheritance of egg production. 

22. Define the law of variation. 

23. Enumerate, define, and give examples of four distinct types of variations. 

24. What is a mutation? Give an example. 

25. Define atavism. 

26. Name three factors which influence reversion. 

27. Define the law of correlation. 

28. Exemplify by comparing the body characteristics of the fowl with egg 

production. 

29. Define prepotency; give example. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES. 

The aims of all commercial poultry breeders may be summed 
up into four definite objects. Some may be striving for all of 
these, but in the majority of cases efforts are concentrated on one, 
or perhaps two, of the following purposes: 

1. To develop the most efficient egg machine possible, — one 
capable of turning out the maximum number of eggs of high 
quality during the season of high prices, at the lowest possible cost 
for feed and labor, 

2. To develop a type of bird for table purposes which will 
attain the greatest weight in the shortest possible time, the flesh 
so formed being of high quality, and this to be achieved with the 
least expenditure for feed and labor, thus leaving the greatest 
possible margin of profit. 

3. Often it is the aim to develop a type of bird which shall 
possess both egg and meat characteristics, these traits to be de- 
veloped to the highest degree of perfection which it is possible for 
them to attain in combination. This is the type of fowl usually 
classed as general purpose, and the type found on the majority 
of poultry farms in America, especially where the farmer keeps 
them in small numbers as a side issue. This is the hardest 
type of fowl to develop, for improvement in either of the above- 
mentioned qualities means deterioration in the other, for meat 
and egg qualities are the results of opposite characteristics which 
it is impossible to develop to their greatest efficiency in one 
individual. 

4. To develop a bird with plumage of a given color pattern 
is also the aim of a large class of poultry breeders. Breeding for 
any other fancy points may also be included here. This breeding 
of poultry to a color standard is practised by many at the sacrifice 
of meat and egg qualities; in other instances it is an important 
feature in connection with breeding for other utility qualities. 

All breeding of poultry legitimately comes under one, or a 
combination, of these four purposes. This chapter deals with the 
practical application of the laws of breeding as well as with the 
methods to be followed and the practical results to be expected. 

245 



246 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

BREEDING SYSTEMS. 

Crossbreeding or Hybridizing. — Crossbreeding may be defined 
as the breeding together of birds of different breeds, varieties, 
or families, with the hope of securing progeny exhibiting in one 
individual the desirable characteristics of both parents. This form 
of breeding is only applicable in the formation of new breeds. 
The effect of its use is so thoroughly to mix blood lines and pedi- 
grees that all records of the performances of the ancestry are lost 
or of no value. Crossing is one of the most certain means of pro- 
ducing variability. 

Where birds possessed of similar characteristics are mated 
together, the progeny of the first cross usually show a fair degree 
of uniformity with regard to the desired trait. Further breeding 
of this crossbred progeny, or hybrid, will result in a great variety 
of types and variations in the characteristics. 

When birds of opposite or unlike characters are mated together, 
the results are varied and disappointing, even in the first generation. 

A good rule is to avoid crossing wherever possible, and to 
resort to it only as the last extreme toward a definite aim. 

Grading up is a term applied to a method quite generally used 
to improve the quality and characters of a mongrel flock. This 
is usually accomplished by the use of pure-bred males in a mixed 
flock. The resulting progeny are called grades, since they are the 
offspring of a pure-bred animal and one of mixed or common breed- 
ing. In poultry raising the cost of birds which are pure bred and true 
to type is relatively so small, in comparison with their superiority 
over mixed stock, that, as a rule, it is more satisfactory and econom- 
ical to begin with pure-bred birds, and if need be to start with but 
a small number. Where grading up is practised, the mating may 
be made either way, but the male is generally taken for the pure- 
bred parent, since he represents half the flock as far as progeny are 
concerned. By this method it is possible to raise a practically 
pure flock from mongrels in a certain number of generations. 

The great disadvantage of grading up is the fact that it is not 
likely to be closely followed continuously after a certain degree 
of perfection is reached, and, just as soon as the breeder uses a 
grade male bird, improvement ceases and retrogression begins. 

Inbreeding. — The terms inbreeding and in-and-in breeding 
are used to designate the breeding together of animals which are 
of the same pedigree. Inbreeding commonly means the mating 



BREEDING SYSTEMS 



247 



of individuals related for one generation, while in-and-in breeding 
indicates those showing a longer period and closer degree of rela- 
tionship. The two terms simply express a difference in the degree 
of relationship of the mated birds. Three ways in which it is 
possible to inbreed are : 




'/a ? 



Va% 

>/8 <f 



3/4 % 



Fig. 125. — Inbreeding chart snowing distribution of inherited characters. The black 
represents the blood lines of the male, and the white the blood lines of the female. The 
solid black lines represent that a male has been chosen from the group from which they 
start and the dotted lines that a female has been chosen. Inbreeding is traced through 
four generations and the results are shown at the bottom of the chart. 



1. Breeding sire and daughter, which produces progeny with 
one-fourth blood like the mother. 

2. Breeding son and mother, which gives progeny with three- 
fourths blood like the mother. 

3. Breeding brother and sister, which produces progeny with 
blood lines from both sire and dam in equal proportion. This 
latter method is undesirable in general practice (Fig. 125). 



248 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

The chief advantage of inbreeding is the possibility which it 
offers of fixing or making permanent the blood of some valuable 
individual. In-bred progeny are exceptionally potent. Another 
advantage is that it avoids the introduction of new blood which 
might produce objectionable characteristics. Inbreeding is the 
greatest force known to intensify existing blood lines, and this 
factor makes it one of the best as well as the worst system to use; 
for it intensifies all characteristics of the individual, whether bad 
or good. Therefore the breeder who resorts to this method of 
mating must exercise special care in eliminating objectionable 
factors which would be intensified equally with the good ones. 
It is often supposed that inbreeding tends to reduce vigor and 
vitality; but, when this is the case, it is undoubtedly due to the 
fact that these characteristics exist already and are intensified in 
the progeny. If poultry breeders were more careful in selecting 
for vigor and vitality, this apparent objection to inbreeding would 
be overcome and less heard of. 

Line Breeding. — Line breeding may be defined as the breeding 
of individuals which are selected from, or restricted to, a single 
line of descent. For example, it is the process of breeding within 
one family or within a limited number of families all of which 
have a common ancestry and represent similar types (Fig. 126). 

Line breeding offers good opportunity for improvement, since 
it excludes everything outside of the chosen line of descent and 
combines in the progeny the characteristics especially desired. 
The result is the rapid purification of the pedigree and the fixing 
of a type. There is slight danger of outside or alien traits appear- 
ing. This is a very conservative system of breeding, and is the 
one practised by many of the best poultry breeders. It has resulted 
in building up some of our best strains of standard-bred poultry. 
The leading advantages of line breeding are two: (1) The probable 
certainty with which results may be predicted, thus allowing the 
breeder to work with his eyes open; (2) the progeny of line-bred 
birds are backed up by a strong hereditary influence which results 
in hastening improvements in the one desired direction, owing to 
the lack of alien or mixed blood. 

In practising line breeding there is one point of caution, — 
namely, the necessity of making the matings both from the pedi- 
gree records and by individual selection in the pens. Some breeders 
are apt to neglect the latter factor of individual condition, and 
make their matings from paper only; in consequence, a few genera- 



BREEDING SYSTEMS 



249 



tions of weak birds may be used, and this will speedily ruin all 
past and future results. Line breeding is one of the best systems 
for improvement if understood and correctly managed. The 
chart (Fig. 126) will enable the poultryman to understand the 
system, so that he may proceed in safety and get sure results. 



HALE LINE 



FEMALE LINE 

/^"^Generations 
LINE BREEDING CHART j^ ) /st 



2nd 



3rd 



78 4th 




Cf'**A '/*#>* (^y 3 *f) m \ 



6th 



Fig. 126. — Line-breeding chart. In this chart the black and white circles and seg- 
ments represent the blood lines, black standing for the male line and white for the female 
line. The solid black lines represent that a male has been chosen from the group from which 
they start and the dotted lines that a female has been chosen. The cross-lined circle at 
the left shows what takes place when out-crossing or the bringing in of new blood lines is 
practised. (After I. K. Felch.) 

Out-crossing, as generally practised, is the use of a male bird 
of unrelated blood with females of the same breed which have 
been in-bred or line-bred for a number of generations. It does 
not mean the introduction of blood of a different breed, but of 



250 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

new blood of the same breed. It is usually done with two objects 
in view: (1) To correct some defect which it is apparently impos- 
sible to correct within the line which has been established and fol- 
lowed; or (2) to introduce some desirable feature which the estab- 
lished line does not possess. 

If careful selection has been made in line breeding, it is doubt- 
ful if out-crossing should be resorted to except for one of the above- 
mentioned reasons. Even under these conditions, out-crossing 
should be cautiously done, lest the variations which are produced 
follow a different line or direction from that which is desired. 

Reciprocal Crosses. — By reciprocal crossing is meant the alter- 
nate crossing of male and female of two different breeds or varieties. 
The behavior of reciprocal crosses in poultry breeding is an inter- 
esting phenomenon. When two races of the same general type 
and character are crossed, the progeny are similar, no matter which 
type was used as the male parent. If, however, the parents are 
widely different, the resulting progeny will vary with the varying 
size of the parents. For example, if one parent is a bantam and 
the other a large bird, the size of the egg, and therefore of the 
chick, will be like that of the mother. If the mother is a bantam 
the chicks will be small; if the mother is of full size the chicks also 
will be full size. There are many minor features which give similar 
results, but generally the progeny resemble each other regardless 
of parent alternations. 

Control of Sex. — A problem concerning which there is much 
speculation and discussion is the possibility of controlling sex. 
From the standpoint of economy and profit, it would be a great 
advantage in poultry breeding to have a large majority of the 
progeny females, since one male is sufficient for a considerable 
number of hens, and the female is the real economic producing 
unit. Despite the fact that numerous rules have been formulated 
for controlling this factor, our present knowledge of the laws of 
reproduction does not permit us to expect any great variation in 
either direction from the usual 50 per cent of each sex. Sex is 
undoubtedly determined, in birds at least, at the time of fertiliza- 
tion by the union of certain kinds of germ cells, and its control is 
at present beyond human power. The sex of the egg after being 
laid is not known. 

Summary cf Ereediiig Systems. — Considerable has been said 
concerning different systems of breeding. The choice of a method 
should be governed entirely by the purpose to be accomplished. 



BREEDING SYSTEMS 251 

If the purpose is breed improvement, using as a basis family- 
lines already established, then line breeding and, to some extent, 
inbreeding should be followed. When new types or breeds are 
desired, two courses are open, — either to watch for and fix mutations 
or sports as they occur, or, more often, to accelerate possible varia- 
tions by crossing, and then from the hybrid progeny attempt to 
develop desired characters. But Mendel has shown this to be a 
difficult and tedious proposition at the best, and impracticable on 
the average poultry farm. 

If the purpose is to improve common stock at small expense, 
then grading up is the best method. In all cases the idea should 
be to breed from the best of the fowls which have the desired trait 
developed to the highest degree of perfection. 

Selection. — Regardless of the extent or the method of breeding, 
the poultryman has always at command the power of selection, 
and it is the real source of improvement. It is made possible by 
variation, and is responsible for many of the most noted develop- 
ments in poultry breeding. 

By selection is meant the ability to choose stock for propagating 
purposes which possess desirable qualities, and which are prepotent 
with regard to these characteristics, so thai, with proper care, 
the resulting progeny will be of a high standard of excellence 
which can be maintained. To select consistently and bring about 
definite improvement, a breeder must have a clear idea of his 
purpose, and work continuously toward it. He must know the 
breed with which he is working as well as its ancestry, must under- 
stand the principles underlying selection, and use judgment in 
departing from certain well-defined lines when compelled thereto 
for economic or commercial reasons. 

In selection there is the important fundamental advantage 
that it results in absolute improvement of quality, and not merely 
in the elevation of the flock to a higher standard by the elimination 
of the lower or average members. It accomplishes two well- 
defined results: (1) It increases the production of individuals, 
thereby making it possible to secure increasingly higher individual 
records; and (2) it stimulates the average production by raising 
the average of the mass, by eliminating the poor producers, and 
by substituting heavier layers in their place. 

Selection should be continuously practised, not only in the 
breeding pen, but in the elimination of weak or sick birds through- 
out the entire brooding and growing period. Fowls which show, 



252 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

at any time, a lack of constitutional vigor will never prove profit- 
able for any purpose. 

Further possibilities in selection are discussed under the sub- 
ject of breeding for definite purposes. 

BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 

It is probable that more poultrymen are endeavoring to increase 
the egg-producing qualities of their birds indirectly by breeding 
and selection than are attempting to improve all other qualities 
combined. This is due to the fact that egg production represents 
a direct money return which, under farming conditions, is the 
one factor of greatest definite value. 

Breeding for egg production necessitates not only careful mating 
and a knowledge of the laws of breeding, but also a clear idea of 
the so-called " egg quality " and egg type among birds which will 
lead to progressive selection. 

The following rules should be kept in mind when breeding for egg 
production: (1) Keep only pure-bred birds; (2) breed from heavy 
producers and persistent laj^ers; (3) breed from mature birds; (4) 
practise line breeding; (5) breed from early-producing pullets; (6) 
breed from late molters; (7) breed from heavy eaters; (8) breed 
from early risers and late retirers; (9) practise proper management. 

Keep pure-bred birds of one well-established egg breed. They 
have proved to be the most economical producers of market eggs, 
laying the greatest quantity of excellent quality, while the feed 
consumed is utilized to better advantage than in other types. 
There is also greater uniformity in the shape, size, and color of 
the eggs, and a greater demand and selling value in general and 
special markets. The uniformity with which pure-bred birds may 
be bred and developed for a given purpose, such as egg production, 
is much greater than with mixed or impure stock. 

Breed from Heavy Producers. — This is one of the leading rules 
in breeding for egg production. The average productive power 
of the progeny may be greatly increased. This can only be accu- 
rately carried on by the use of the trap nest and by special matings 
for breeding purposes. The most persistent layers are those which 
begin to lay early in the fall (October or November) and continue 
to lay regularly throughout the winter and spring months, also 
laying well during the summer, and which, after undergoing a 
quick, complete molt, begin again to lay in the early fall of the 
following year. In selecting a breeder it is not safe to take the 



BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 



253 



bird which is a heavy layer merely during the three spring months, 
for she is often found to lack the persistency so essential to a heavy 
yearly production. 

Only mature birds, male and female, should be used in breed- 
ing for egg production, for these are more prepotent, and will 
produce offspring with more vigor and vitality and of larger size 
when adults. Hens should be used, not pullets. 

Practise line breeding to fix and intensify the good qualities 
of the strain in regard to fecundity. This avoids the dangers 
attendant upon out-crossing. 
The introduction of low fe- 
cundity lines by the use of 
males of unknown pedigree is 
evidently a very bad mistake. 

Early-producing Pullets. 
■ — By selecting for breeders 
hens which were early pro- 
ducers in their pullet year, it 
is possible to intensify this 
characteristic in the progeny, 
and not only is this quality 
in itself desirable, but a heavy 
yearly production is seldom at- 
tained without it. Early pro- 
duction, say October of the 
pullet year, means an early 
winter start, which signifies 
a good yield for the winter 
months and promises for the 
individual a high yearly total. 

Late Molters. — It has been proved by experiment and obser- 
vation that the bird which molts the latest is, in the majority 
of cases, the heaviest layer; in other words, the hen that molts 
in July or August, and gets her new plumage and makes a fine 
appearance early, is not the one that is the heavy layer (Fig. 
127) . The one that is laying eggs until cool weather in the fall is 
the one that does not molt until late, but looks shabby and raw 
during that time; nevertheless, when she does start, the molt is 
usually rapid and complete, leaving her in good condition to com- 
mence laying in early winter. This external feature, the molt, 
is of practical value in selecting persistent layers. 




Fig. 127. — "Lady Lay More," a white Plym- 
outh Rock hen that laid 281 eggs in twelve 
months, winning the international egg-laying con- 
test 1911-12. Note the ragged condition of the 
plumage, the pale shank and the bright, promi- 
nent eye. 



254 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

Birds with Large Appetites. — The consumption of a large 
amount of feed is essential in the case of the heavy layer, in order 
to secure the materials necessary for the egg, and it has been 
found that heavy egg production is always accompanied by heavy 
eating. The bird with a vigorous appetite should be selected, not 
the one which is a small and delicate feeder. A bird which does 
not eat cannot provide material for both maintenance and pro- 
duction, and hence is unprofitable, even though her cost for keep 
is but slight. 

Early Risers and Late Retirers. — In the selection of breeders, 
it is well to choose birds which are off the roost early in the morn- 
ing and the last on the roost at night. This habit indicates a keen 
appetite, since they are up with the first break of morn looking 
for feed, and are the last to give up the search at night. This also 
shows vitality, for any bird out of condition or with low vitality 
will leave the roost late in the morning and with reluctance. 

Selection. — At the same time that one is breeding for this 
quality in accordance with the preceding brief suggestions, it is 
essential to select for the following features: (1) Constitutional 
vigor; (2) egg type; and (3) size. 

Constitutional vigor means the health, activity, and vitality 
seen in strong fowls, the lack of which in weak ones makes them 
unsatisfactory producers and reproducers. 

There is great need of breeding and selecting for constitutional 
vigor, because we are expecting more of the modern hen in pro- 
portion to her live weight and size than from any other class of 
domestic or farm animals (not including honeybees). As a result 
of heavy strain from overproduction, fowls often break down, and 
the effect is shown in the future progeny. Much of the low fer- 
tility and low hatching power in poultry, the weakness of chicks 
and mortality in mature stock, when such conditions arise, can 
be traced in large measure to the broken-down constitution of 
the fowl under exacting requirements. 

A good hen is expected, on an average, to lay in one year five 
times her body weight in eggs. This would equal one egg every 
three days during the year. In order to accomplish what is 
expected of her, she must consume about 30 times her body 
weight of feed. 

By observing one or more flocks, it will be noted that from hatch- 
ing time till death fowls differ considerably in regard to their consti- 
tutional vigor, all flocks showing strong and weak fowls, regardless 



BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 



255 



of breed or strain (Fig. 128). Breeding and selection will make it 
possible to reduce the number of weak ones to a minimum. 

Lack of Vigor. — The following are some of the more important 
contributory causes to loss or lack of vigor: 

1. Increased Productiveness. — In its wild life the ancestor of 
the domestic hen laid but few eggs a year, perhaps a dozen. The 
modern hen is expected by good care and management to lay 
from 120 to 160 a year, and, at the same time, these eggs, or some 




Fig. 128. — Strong and weak males. Contrast the bright protruding eye, erect carriage, 
and short heavy spur in the one and the low tail, sunken eye, long slender spur, and drooping 
carriage in the other. 



of them, must be hatched into chicks with as much strength and 
vigor as the parent. It is evident that any increase in the produc- 
tion of eggs must be accomplished by a proportionate increase in 
the physical strength of the bird, to enable her to assimilate the 
increased amount of feed required for this increased production. 

2. In-and-in Breeding Without Regard to Vigor. — Inbreeding 
is often resorted to in order that the high producing qualities may 
be better and more quickly fixed; but, where due consideration is 
not at the same time given to vigor, loss of vitality is bound to follow. 



256 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

3. The use of pullets instead of hens for breeding will lower vigor 
by producing progeny from immature parents. 

4. Too heavy feeding during the fall and winter with the object 
of increasing production. Under normal conditions the fowl is 
allowed a part of the year in which to rest and store up energy 
for future seasons of heavy production, and it will be found that 
forced feeding and heavy production are antagonistic to the 
highest fertility and greatest degree of vigor in the offspring. It 
is well, therefore, at as early a date as possible, to pick out all the 
adults which are desirable for use as breeders, and give them time 
to store up energy and physical strength. 

5. Excessive Crowding or Congesting of Breeding Stock. — The 
modern intensive system of handling poultry is responsible for 
much of the present low vitality. Where it is desirable to raise 
future economic producers, it should be the policy to handle the 
breeding fowls on extensive farms rather than on intensive produc- 
ing poultry plants. Both young stock and breeders have more 
vigor when raised on land used for other purposes, as fruit 
growing, grass, and grain crops that are being raised mostly for 
pasture and green forage. 

6. Lack of exercise for breeding stock is another direct cause of 
low fertility and subsequent low vitality. 

7. Carelessness and improper methods of hatching and rearing 
chicks give bad results. 

8. Failure to select breeding stock with superior physical vigor. 
If the desire is to increase or even maintain a high degree of vitality 
this selection is paramount. 

Signs of high vitality or lack of it are easily distinguished. The 
following are a few : 

The actions and movements of fowls probably best indicate their 
physical condition. The physically weak are inactive and dull, and 
more likely to sit than to stand. They do not range to any extent 
in search of forage, nor do they scratch in search of feed. They 
are longest on the perch, possibly spending the entire day there. 

The loudness and frequency of the crow of the male, and the 
cackle of the female, are indications of physical strength and 
superiority. The weak fowls seldom crow or sing. 

There are certain body signs which indicate lack of vigor in a 
fowl; as, for instance, long neck, thin beak, narrow head, a long, 
slender body, long legs and thighs, or a stilted appearance, while 
the reverse is true of vigorous birds. 



BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 



257 



In the young, growing chick common signs of low vitality 
are stunted growth, accompanied by slow feathering and a 
pronounced crow-like beak, drooping wings and head, and a low, 
squatting walk. 

The strong bird at any age should have a bright prominent 
eye, a well-developed, blocky body, bright plumage, and erect car- 
riage, bright comb and wattles, and should be active and sprightly 
in movement. 

It is evident that there is a relation between the physical 
characteristics of fowls and their vitality; hence it should be the 




Fig. 129. — Showing the wedge or angular shape which is so common in good layers. 
The heavy development toward the back may be seen from side, front, and rear. 



rule systematically to select for constitutional vigor at all ages 
and for all purposes. 

Egg Type. — The development of an ideal body type, and the 
constant selection of breeders which resemble or approach that 
type, will aid greatly in developing a uniform flock; and, if the 
features which go to make up this type are those associated with 
heavy egg production, it may be termed an egg type. 

While it has not been proved that there is any definite relation 
between a certain type as a whole and egg production, yet the 
following features are associated with the possibility of heavy 
production : 

In discussing type, the mistake must not be made of disre- 
garding the breed shape or type, for it can readily be seen that 

17 



258 



APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 



there cannot be one egg type for all breeds, owing to the differences 
in body shape. The egg breeds bear a close similarity in their 
breed type, and it may thus be assumed that this general confor- 
mation represents the desired form (Fig. 129). These are here 
outlined. They are valueless unless combined with health and 
vitality. 

1. Width of body comes first; as, without ample room for the 
digestive and reproductive organs, they cannot attain their maxi- 
mum development. 

2. Depth of body is essential for the same reason. 

3. A rather long body carried somewhat high in front and 
low behind, with the largest part of the body lying back of the 
leg joint. 



BELLE OF JERSET 



LADY CORNELL 




Fig. 130. — Two phenomenal hens. 
A Comparison. 



Belle of Jersey. 

Body weight, lbs 3.8 

Lbs. feed consumed 118.5 

Eggs laid in one year 246 

Weight of eggs laid, lbs 29.5 



Lady Cornell. 

Body weight, lbs 3.2 

Lbs. feed consumed 110.0 

Eggs laid in one year 257 

Weight of eggs laid, lbs 28.8 



Financial Statement. 

Cost of feed $1.79 Cost of feed $1.66 

Labor, and interest 1.00 Labor, and interest 1.00 

Total debit 2.79 Total debit 2.66 

Value of eggs at $0.35 7.18 Value of eggs at $0.35 7.43 

Value of manure 33 Value of manure 29 

Total credit 7.51 Total credit 7.72 

Net profit 4.72 Net profit 5.06 



BREEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION 259 

4. Neck medium in length and rather full hackle. 

5. Tail carried rather high, showing vigor. 

6. Head medium, and comb and wattles large and well colored. 

7. Body V-shaped when viewed from side, top, and rear. This 
V -shape is very characteristic, and when present in marked degree 
the heavy development lies well back in the abdominal region 
(Fig. 130). 

8. Close, compact feathering, and short, stout beak, with 
bright eyes, are other signs which indicate a good layer, hence 
are requisite in the ideal type. 

9. Legs rather short and widespread. 

Size.— Other things being equal, it is the best practice, when 
breeding for egg production, to select fowls of good size, for such 
birds are capable of digesting more feed and have a greater body 
weight, which are characteristic of physical strength. They also 
lay larger eggs, and have a large abdominal cavity, which provides 
more room for the vital organs. 

BREEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION. 

The following points will be of value in making the best selec- 
tion for the breeding pen. Only those factors are discussed which 
are needed in addition to those required for egg production. 

Use Pure Breeds of the Meat Type. — The pure-bred bird will 
give the highest percentage of progeny capable of the highest 
development for meat purposes, owing to long-continued breeding 
for that purpose. The feed they consume will also be utilized for 
the desired purpose to a greater extent than that of mongrels or 
crosses. The finished product, when killed and packed for ship- 
ment, will show greater uniformity and be of higher quality. 

Large, Well-developed Birds. — Size is of the utmost importance 
in mating for meat purposes. If rightly managed a large frame is 
capable of putting on more flesh than a small one. Not only 
should a large frame be selected, but it should be abundantly 
covered with flesh, especially the breast, thigh, and back It may 
be said that the meat type is represented by a bird large in size 
and free from sharp angles, with a wide deep body and heavy 
development ahead, an abundance of flesh, and having a compact 
rather than rangy appearance. 

Character of Product. — The character of the product desired 
will to some extent determine the method of breeding. For ex- 
ample, with broiler raising as the object, a bird should be chosen 



2o0 



APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 



which develops rapidly and will attain considerable si/o at an 
early ago. as Wyandottes and Plymouth Rooks. When large- 
sized late roosters are desired, the typo of bird selected is one which 
is capable of attaining extremely largo size, accompanied by a 
tenderness and good quality of flesh when considerably advanced 
in ago. bin it need not be of exceptionally rapid growth, as Brahmas. 
Associated with those throe factors should be good health and an 
abundance of vigor, which under proper methods of management will 




Fig. 131. — A light Brahma pair — ideal for moat production. 

give the individuals every possible opportunity to develop to their 
fullest extent all the inherited qualities of flesh growth (Fig. 131). 

BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS. 

Years of practice are required to learn all the combinations 
and possibilities which result from various methods and practices 
of mating for certain colors. The best way to produce variations 
in pattern and color, as required by the standard for each breed, 
must be learned, especially variations of sex in the same variety. 



BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS 261 

Double Matings. — Before discussing color variations in detail, 
it is necessary to understand what is meant by the term " double 
mating." Double matings are quite different from the reciprocal 
crosses described elsewhere. They have been developed largely 
through the sexual dimorphism which is so pronounced in most 
breeds of poultry, and especially through the desire of breeders to 
exaggerate this difference between the sexes. These are often 
designated as cockerel and pullet matings. 

Examples of such exaggerated differences are found between 
the hen and cock birds of Dark Brahmas. It is the desire to per- 




Fig. 132. — A difference in color pattern due to sex — an example of sexual dimorphism. 

feet the penciling of the hens, while in the males it is to group the 
colors in masses. In order that this difference may be highly 
developed, the practice is to make two matings, one for females 
and the other for males. To produce females the practice is to 
mate the best penciled hens with a cock bird which shows as 
much lacing as possible. To produce males the darkest hens are 
mated with cock birds which show as little lacing as possible. 

The sexual difference may be noted in Barred Plymouth Rocks, 
the males showing narrower bars and being lighter throughout, 



262 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

while the females show wider bars and are darker throughout. The 
best marked birds of this breed are bred by double matings. By con- 
tinuing this process throughout many generations, it is possible to de- 
velop some excellent specimens according to standard requirements ; 
yet breeders have thus pVactically split some breeds into two well- 
defined and separate varieties according to sex color pattern (Fig. 132). 
This method is also practised extensively in securing Leghorns 
of the desired comb type, the male requirement being a straight, 




Via. 133. — A prize-winning pair of Columbian Wyandottes, with coloration similar to 
the light Brahmas. ^Photo by Sunnybrook Farm, Eatontown, X. J.) 

upright comb, and the female a lopped comb, these differences 
being exaggerated by the use of double matings. 

Breeding successfully through double matings necessitates a 
thorough understanding of the breed and the laws of heredity. 
It is an artificial procedure, while single mating is natural. 

Breeding for Color. — There are a great many rules and direc- 
tions for the breeding of partly colored birds, especially those 
with fancy plumage pattern; as, for example, the penciled and 
stippled breeds (Fig. 133). But, since a full understanding of 
these is needed only by the true fancier, and can be acquired only 
by years of actual practice, they will not be discussed here. A few 
references will be made, however, to common well-known facts. 



BREEDING FOR COLOR AND PLUMAGE MARKINGS 263 

Breeding for desired solid color is by selection and grading, 
not by the formation of new colors from crossing of birds of differ- 
ent colors. The latter procedure would result in progeny with the 
characteristic colors of both sire and dam arranged in motley 
array; while by selection through many generations it is possible 
to attain different degrees of color and shade, as, for example, 
variations in red and buff. 

Under color is of great importance in fixing external color, for 
it affects the outside color by toning it down or intensifying it, 
according to the contending combinations of outer and under color. 

Another interesting factor is that of color harmony or the 
relation between certain colors, also their association with definite 
colors in other body parts. For example, the Rhode Island Red, 
or any red bird, with stripe in the saddle or hackle is invariably 
accompanied with yellow shank and skin. Were the same plumage 
to be combined with willow-colored or blue shanks, a lack of color 
harmony would immediately be noticed. 

The same is true with all black plumage. For example, in the 
Minorca and Black Langshan the black feathers are always asso- 
ciated with blue-black shanks and white skin, since any other 
color (yellow, for instance) would produce a lack of color harmony. 
Furthermore, these relations seem to be very firmly fixed, and even 
after repeated trials it is extremely difficult to substitute the 
opposing color. There are certain black breeds which have yellow 
shanks, yet this association is accompanied with a peculiar sheen 
which might be described as a bronze tinge, while the true 
black color of blue-shanked birds has a greenish sheen. There 
might be named numerous combinations of colors which seem 
to be fixed. 

" Brassiness and creaminess " are defects which may be due 
in greater or less degree to one or more of the following three causes : 

An unequal distribution of black pigment in plumage of breeds 
which have a slate under color of dark stripes on saddle or hackle 
(for example, Columbian Wyandottes). This effect is especially 
noticeable in newly established breeds before color pattern has 
become thoroughly fixed. In its earlier stages this effect is termed 
" smoky," but the cloudiness later changes to a slight yellowish 
tinge. Such a defect can soon be bred out by fixing the color type. 

Creaminess or brassiness may also be caused in white breeds 
by an excess of fat, induced in many cases by the feeding of too 
much corn and corn meal. Not that the corn necessarily causes 



264 APPLICATION OF BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

the creaniiness, but the large deposit of fat under the skin gives 
the white plumage a yellowish tinge. 

It is also caused in many cases by the " burning " of the white 
plumage during the summer when the birds are exposed continu- 
ously to the rays of the sun. Most of the noted breeders of exhi- 
bition white birds keep them confined practically all the time, 
letting them out only toward night. 

Sail Effects on Plumage and Shank. — The presence of certain 
alkalies in the soil may make it almost impossible to secure the 
greatest degree of color in plumage and shanks. In certain sections 
it is impossible to get and keep the clear yellow shank, owing to the 
presence of alkalies in the soil. Certain highly colored soils, of 
a clay or shale nature, are a great hindrance to the breeder by 
compelling him to confine his birds. (For further discussions on 
breeding for color see references, page 265.) 

Breeding Fallacies. — There are two alleged facts in breeding 
which should be explained. 

The influence of a previous sire or impregnation on the charac- 
ter of subsequent chicks. In the case of fowls, even after a cock 
bird has been removed from the pen he may become the parent 
of chicks hatched from eggs subsequently laid by these hens, for 
the sperm continues active within the hen for from ten days to 
two weeks. But if, after the eggs laid have ceased to be fertile, 
a new cock be added, different from the first, there is no proof 
of any influence of the previous male bird. Experiments bj^ Waite 
show that at least three weeks must elapse before one can be sure 
that the effect of a previous mating has ceased. 

Another alleged effect is that of imagination upon the subse- 
quent progeny. For example, there is no ground for believing 
that, if two pens of birds, one black and the other white, run side 
by side, any splashing or mixing shown in the progeny is due to 
the effect of sight or imagination. A more sane hypothesis would 
be that the opposing cock bird jumped the fence and fertilized 
the eggs. 

REVIEW. 

1. Name four objects toward which all poultry breeding of a commercial 

nature is tending. 

2. What are the commercial possibilities of crossbreeding? 

3. Define "grading up," and state its commercial possibilities. 

4. Define "inbreeding," and name three ways in which it is possible to 

inbreed. 

5. What can you say of the prepotency of in-bred progeny? 



REVIEW 265 

6. Define line breeding; what are its possibilities in commercial breeding? 

7. Define "out-crossing" and give its use. 

8. What is meant by reciprocal crosses? 

9. What are the possibilities of sex control? 

10. Give a brief summary of the possibilities of different breeding systems. 

11. Define and give the fundamental advantage of selection. 

12. Give two results of proper selection. 

13. Enumerate and discuss briefly nine rules which should be considered in 

breeding for egg production. 

14. Give three features which should be considered in selecting for egg pro- 

duction. 

15. Discuss the factor of constitutional vigor in breeding. 

16. Enumerate some of the contributory causes to lack of vigor. 

17. What are some of the signs of vitality and lack of it? 

18. Give nine points which are associated with high egg production. 

19. What is the value of good size among egg breeds? 

20. Discuss three factors which should be considered when breeding for meat 

production. 

21. Discuss "double matings" for color and plumage markings. 

22. What is meant by sexual dimorphism? 

23. Give some important considerations in breeding for color. 

24. What are the causes of "brassiness or creaminess?" 

25. Name some soil effects upon plumage and shank color. 

26. What, if any, is the effect of a previous impregnation upon subsequent 

chicks? 

References. — Breeding Poultry for Egg Production, by Raymond Pearl. 
Maine Bulletin 192. Importance of Constitutional Vigor in the Breeding of 
Poultry, by Rice and Rogers, Cornell Reading Course Bulletin 45. Inherit- 
ance of Fecundity, by Pearl and Surface, Maine Bulletin 166. Appliances 
and Methods for Pedigree Poultry Breeding, by Pearl and Surface, Maine 
Bulletin 159. A Barometrical Study of Egg Production in the Domestic 
Fowl, by Pearl and Surface, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 110 
(in two parts). The Single Testing System of Breeding for Egg Production, 
by D. F. Laurie, Department of Agriculture, South Australia. Breeding for 
Egg Production and Egg Types, by James Dryden, Utah Bulletin 92. 



CHAPTER XV. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYING STOCK. 

The primary object in the management of a flock of laying 
hens is the profit which accrues from the sale of eggs for use as 
human food, as distinguished from the production of eggs to be 
used for hatching in the propagation of future layers and breeders. 



JAN. 



PRICE z 



MAR. MAY JULY SEPT. NOV. 
FEB. APR. JUNE AUG. OCT. 




TEMP 

Fig. 134. — Curves showing the relation between yield (y), temperature (T) and selling 
price (P) of eggs during the year 1911. 

In the former case the idea is to secure a maximum egg yield 
throughout the year, especially during the months when the price 
of eggs is high, owing to a large demand and limited production. 
This usually occurs during the cold months, or during November, 
December, January, and February (Fig. 134). 

The endeavor is to secure a maximum winter egg yield if the 
greatest profit in market eggs is to be realized; while, in the case 
266 



PROPER MANAGEMENT 267 

of production of eggs for breeding purposes, the actual laying 
season for the eggs which are selected is very short, and during 
the more natural season of heavy production. 

The exact profit which will be realized depends on two factors, — 
cost and amount of production. All the necessary factors of 
environment and feed should be provided at a minimum cost 
without decreasing the efficiency, keeping in mind that larger pro- 
duction means a greater amount of products for sale. The aim 
is to get the maximum production at the minimum cost. If records 
are carefully and regularly kept, there will be found a limit beyond 
which increased expenditure in feed and labor is not compensated 




Fig. 135. — White Leghorns. There is every sign of high vitality. (Photo by Rancocas 

Poultry Farm.) 

for by an increased yield. The relation between cost and amount 
of production should invariably be studied. 

Proper management for successful egg production may be 
briefly summarized under the four headings: (1) Selection of 
stock; (2) suitable environment; (3) proper feeding at all seasons; 
(4) care in marketing. These may be considered the four corner- 
stones upon which is built the successful management of laying 
stock, all other conditions being secondary. 

Selection of Stock. — The best way to start is to build up the 
home flock with winter egg production as the main object. The 
breed to be selected depends upon market requirements and upon 
the size and character of the farm. Large, extensive plants will 
yield large amounts of eggs which must be shipped to special 
markets at some distance. The poultryman should first determine 



268 



MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 



the color of egg (white or brown) demanded by that particular 
market, and then aim to produce that for which the highest price 
is paid. The stock selected should be constitutionally vigorous, 
and well bred for several preceding generations. If possible, they 
should be from a heavy producing strain, as the offspring of such 
are much more apt to be good producers (Figs. 135 and 136). 

Suitable Environment. — The laying stock, if economical pro- 
duction is to be assured, should be given congenial surroundings 
and an environment conducive to good health, — hence, to increased 




Fig. 136. — Ideal individuals of the single-comb White Leghorn breed — unsurpassed 
as producers of large, white eggs, for commercial purposes. (Photo by International Cor- 
respondence School.) 

egg production. Environment depends upon the size and style 
of house and the care of house and yards. Good care is important 
in the management of laying flocks. 

Proper feeding of laying birds at different seasons should be 
studied, and proper changes made to meet the changing conditions 
of season, weather, and age of the birds. The cost of feed should 
be kept as low as possible, and yet it must supply the nutrients 
required and in the forms most conducive to health and production. 

Care in Marketing. — Profit from good production does not 
depend alone upon a large yield of eggs; but, if the best prices 
and profits are to be realized, the eggs must be marketed in a 
manner, and at markets, which will insure the highest revenue. 



FALL MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 269 

For this reason a poultryman producing eggs commercially must 
make a careful study of egg types and grades, as well^as of market 
conditions, in order to solve these questions intelligently. 

Fall Management of Laying Stock. — During the growing season 
of the pullets which are being raised for future layers, great care 
must be exercised to keep them growing uniformly from hatching 
to maturity, as a check or setback will cause them to mature 
too late for winter laying. They should be brought to maturity 
as rapidly as is consistent with normal development and body 
growth. Development is best promoted by free range with an 
abundance of shade and green feed. At all stages of their growth 
dry mash should be within reach, as it allows the birds an equal 
chance to obtain the nutrients they require. Maturity should be 
reached within six to eight months from the time of hatching, this 
depending upon the breed, the Leghorn being one of the earliest 
to mature. All birds depended upon for winter egg production 
should be brought to the laying age by the middle of October at 
the latest, or before extremely cold weather sets in. It is often 
possible, by varying the amount and character of feed and the 
mode of feeding, to mature all birds, even though of different 
hatchings, at approximately the same time by giving them forcing 
or retarding mashes. It is not desirable to mature birds too early 
in the fall (previous to September 1), as they are apt to molt 
the same season, in which case they will not be profitable for winter 
egg production. On the other hand, maturity should not occur 
too late, since the advent of cold weather retards it for from two 
to three months. It is best to endeavor to get a maximum egg 
yield of at least twenty-five per cent by the first or middle of 
November at the latest. If such a yield is secured it is very easy 
to maintain it or increase it during the winter by proper manage- 
ment. On the other hand, if the egg yield is small in November 
it will be nearly impossible to obtain a profitable yield from the 
birds during the next three months. 

In Winter Laying Quarters Early. — The pullets should be put 
in their winter quarters at least a month before they are expected 
to commence laying, for two reasons : (1) In order that they may 
become accustomed to their quarters, for birds are very susceptible 
to changes in environment, and will not produce the maximum 
number of eggs if changed about from pen to pen. (2) It is much 
easier for the poultryman to study his birds, watch their ultimate 
maturity more closely, and, if need be, vary the food to suit 



270 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

changing circumstances, when they are in their quarters than when 
they are scattered about over the range. (For types of houses see 
Chapter VII.) 

Before putting pullets into winter quarters it is advisable to 
plan the arrangement of the birds in their permanent pens for 
the ensuing year, so as to insure permanence and avoid the labor 
of transferring them. 

Practise Rigid Selection at Maturity. — Only strong, vigorous 
birds should be put in the laying pen, and to secure the best results 
selection should be made from hatching time to maturity, care- 
fully weeding out all sick or crippled birds and those which show 
lack of stamina or vitality. This selection should be especially 
rigid when the final choice is made in the fall ; only those of good 
size, healthy, mature, and vigorous should be chosen, as these char- 
acteristics are usually combined with prolific laying of large eggs. 

Size of Flock. — The number of birds to be placed in each flock 
will depend upon the type of farm and upon the extent of the 
business. Of the two extremes, it has been demonstrated that the 
highest individual production can be secured where a small number 
of birds (from 10 to 20) are kept as the unit. But increased indi- 
vidual production means increased labor; therefore it follows 
that large flocks, of two hundred to five hundred birds, can be 
expected to produce a large number of eggs more economically. 
In the latter case the yield per bird will usually be slightly lower, 
but the cost of labor will be so much reduced that the advantage 
will be on the side of the large flock (Fig. 137). 

Winter Management of the Layers. — The problem of winter 
management is to create, in so far as possible, ideal artificial con- 
ditions, by making or producing an environment which approaches 
in a great measure the natural conditions of spring, which is the 
natural laying season of the hen. The creation of this artificial 
environment necessitates careful and continuous study of the birds 
and their needs. 

Proper Feeding. — The first requisite in the winter management 
of the laying flock is that the birds be provided with sufficient 
feed containing nutrients in the right proportion to supply all 
their requirements for maintenance and production, also that they 
be given an abundance of succulent material, which is an incentive 
to egg production, especially during the winter. The proper feed 
will vary with the breed, the season of the year, and the weather. 
During extremely cold weather an increase in corn will enable the 



WINTER MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYERS 



271 



birds to maintain their body heat with a lower consumption of the 
materials regularly supplied in the ration, and will help to keep up 
the normal production. The feeding of hot mashes occasionally 
during extremely cold weather will also help to keep them warm. 
Exercise. --^Hens kept in close confinement, as is the case with 
the laying flock in winter, should be made to take sufficient exer- 
cise to keep the body in normal flesh without depositing surplus 
fat. More care in this respect is required when the heavier breeds 
are kept, such as Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes; with Leg- 
horns there is less danger. When not at liberty the exercise taken 




Fig. 137. 



-A large-unit laying flock (500). An abundance of range and plenty of shade. 
(Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) 



by hens is principally walking and scratching, but birds in con- 
finement can be compelled to exercise by placing practically all 
their grain feed in deep litter on the floor of the house. Better 
results can be obtained through the winter from birds kept closely 
confined and induced to exercise in this way than when they are 
let out on wet snowy ground and chilled. The actual amount of 
exercise necessary must be determined largely by the judgment 
of the feeder and by the flesh condition of the birds in the flock. 
Keep them plump, — neither thin nor excessively fat. 

Health and Cleanliness.— A healthy condition of the laying 
birds is a fundamental requisite, and is best insured by keeping 
everything about the poultry house reasonably clean. The break- 
ing out of head colds of a roupy nature in a flock of birds in the 



272 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

winter will immediately cut down the egg yield perceptibly, in 
some cases more than half, and it will be a number of weeks before 
the condition is remedied and the birds are back to their normal 
production. Three special matters must be considered in the 
sanitation and cleansing of the poultry house. They are embraced 
under the following headings : (1) Frequent removal of the drop- 
pings; (2) keeping the litter in perfect condition; (3) a general 
cleaning and spraying of the house at least twice a year. 

Removal of Droppings. — The exact time and frequency of clean- 
ing the dropping boards will depend upon the number of birds 
in the house, the weather, and the kind and amount of absorbents 
used on the dropping boards. A good rule is to clean the boards 
whenever the droppings become moist, for they then give off 
objectionable odors and fumes that are detrimental. This is apt 
to take place more quickly if the weather is damp than when it 
is dry or when exceptionally cold in the winter. As long as the 
droppings can be kept dry by the use of absorbents, such as dust, 
gypsum, sand, and phosphate "floats," they emit no odors and are 
not objectionable. It is not economy to clean them too often, 
owing to the large amount of labor involved. The usual custom 
is to clean them about twice a week, but the rule varies according 
to the conditions outlined. 

Care of Litter. — The litter on the floor of the poultry house 
is placed there to hide the grain, and this object is best accom- 
plished if the litter is loose, dry, and rather coarse. The frequency 
with which it should be removed and replaced with new litter 
depends upon several circumstances. A safe rule is to clean out 
the old litter and put in new (1) whenever it becomes so fine that 
it packs down and does not hide the grain; (2) whenever it 
becomes moist and damp, due to foggy weather or the beating 
of rain into the house, in which case it is very apt to produce roup 
or colds; (3) whenever it becomes much soiled with the poultry 
manure. 

A good plan is to start in the fall by putting about two or 
three inches of litter in the house and then add to it, a little every 
week or two, thus keeping clean litter on the top all the time. In 
actual practice it is advisable to clean the litter all out three or 
four times each winter, but this depends almost wholly upon the 
kind of litter used. 

What to use for Poultry Litter. — Where poultry raising is car- 
ried on in conjunction with general farm operations, there is usually 



WINTER MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYERS 



273 



an abundance of material at hand for use as litter, such as straw, 
cheap hay, leaves, or cut corn stover. Of these four materials, 
grain straw is undoubtedly the best; leaves crush quickly and do 
not hide the grain, while cut corn stover is rather coarse, the 
birds have a tendency to eat it, and this often produces a trouble 
known as " crop bound." 

On the large commercial poultry plants where litter must be 
purchased, one method is to use planer shavings, which can be 
bought by the bale, mixed with the same proportion of wheat, oat, 
or rye straw. This mixture lasts longer than straw alone, is always 
loose and porous, does not 
pack, and the droppings dry 
up quickly. By adding a lit- 
tle fresh material from time 
to time a well-ventilated house 
will not need frequent clean- 
ing. 

Spraying the Interior of the 
House. — Before the birds are 
put in the laying house in the 
fall, and again each spring, 
each pen should be given a 
thorough cleansing, which 
means the removal of all 
portable fixtures and placing 
them in the sun for a few 
hours, as well as the spraying 
of the interior of the house 
and fixtures with a good dis- 
infecting solution (Fig. 138). 
A good mixture is one con- 
taining lime to whiten the house, a disinfectant which will kill 
disease germs, and kerosene or crude oil to kill mites. This is very 
desirable, as it accomplishes three purposes with one application. 
(See Chapter XXVIII.) 

Careful Attention to Details Necessary. — The poultryman should 
always bear his birds in mind and make special efforts to meet 
all changes in weather. Keep the house as dry as possible by 
closing the curtains and windows on stormy days, especially if 
the wind is from such a quarter that it will blow directly into the 
house ; also protect the birds from extremely cold weather by means 
18 



- r 


1 



Fig. 138. 



A simple and efficient disinfecting 
outfit. 



274 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

of properly adjusted muslin curtains. Frozen combs should be 
particularly guarded against, for a laying flock exposed to this 
condition will show a marked decline in egg production. The 
birds should not be allowed out of doors when there is snow on the 
ground or when the ground is wet, for wet feet and the eating of 
snow are known to decrease egg production. If a heavy production 
is desired during the winter, the best policy is to keep the birds 
continually confined, regardless of weather. 

Care of Broody Hens. — As soon as an individual hen has laid 
a number of eggs, her natural tendency is to try to incubate them. 
This instinct is much more pronounced during late winter and 
spring, and, if a continuous heavy production is desired, it is 
necessary to break up the broody habit as soon as possible, for 
two reasons. If hens are allowed to sit continuously, they do not 
begin again to lay for a month or more, and they are also apt to 
spoil the eggs laid by other hens in the same pen. The best way 
to break up broody hens is to confine them from three to five days, 
as a rule, in specially constructed coops with slatted bottoms, feed- 
ing them light rations of wheat, with plenty of water. Withhold 
all heating feed, such as corn, and keep them away from their 
natural nests. The desire to sit is thus more quickly discouraged. 
The sooner the habit is broken up, the sooner the birds will start 
laying again. Inattention to the proper management of broody 
hens will mean a large number of them in the nests, especially 
during the spring. This will greatly curtail the egg yield and will 
hinder other hens from laying where they should. 

Summer management of laying birds resolves itself into three 
topics: (1) How to handle the birds in the most economical 
manner; (2) the selection of birds which are to be kept over for 
future layers; (3) carrying the birds safely through the molt. All 
these matters should be considered from the standpoint of econ- 
omy of feed and labor, as well as immediate and future egg pn> 
duction. 

Handling the Birds in the Most Economical Manner. — As soon 
as warm weather comes in the spring, the birds should be permitted 
as much range as possible, since this supplies them with an abund- 
ance of natural green feed. Freedom of range will greatly reduce 
the amount of feed required and will keep the birds in much better 
health. When it is impossible to pasture the birds on green feed, 
it is necessary to grow and feed it to them in the form of a 
soiling crop. 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT 275 

Reduce the Ration Gradually, According to Range Conditions.— 
Discard all special concentrated commercial feed if it is possible 
for birds to get the equivalent from home-grown sources. No 
sudden changes should be made from one method of feeding to 
another. When it is impossible to provide summer layers with an 
abundance of range and green feed, they must be fed right through 
the summer practically the same rations which they received 
during the winter. Extensive forcing of layers at any season should 
be discouraged, as it is apt to weaken them physically, shorten 
their term of profitable production, and at the same time unfit 
them for breeding during the breeding season. Feeding for forcing 
can be successfully carried on during a few of the winter months 
without injury, but not in the summer. The birds should then be 
given a rest in which to get back any lost vitality or vigor. 

In the management of the summer flock an important requisite 
is that the houses be cool with an abundance of fresh air. This 
can be secured by leaving the curtains up and windows open, and 
by admitting cool air from the back of the house. Any of the open- 
front convertible houses can in this way be made into desirable 
laying houses for summer. This is especially important in low 
shed-roofed houses covered with paper, as they are apt to be very 
hot in the summer. By inducing a circulation of cool air during 
the night, the birds will keep in much better condition, and 
respond with a larger yield. 

Selection of Layers for Second Year. — The age when birds are 
most profitable as layers depends almost entirely upon their man- 
agement during the pullet year, and upon the health and vigor 
of the birds at the end of their first laying season. There are two 
general methods on commercial plants regarding the holding of 
birds for laying. 

The first one is to keep only pullets for commercial egg pro- 
duction. They are brought to maturity and forced for continuous 
maximum egg production, and at the end of one year's laying are 
disposed of for meat. A start is made again each year with an 
entirely new lot of layers. This method necessitates the hatching 
of an exceedingly large number of chicks every year, and great 
risk is run in the danger and liability of late hatches and poor 
broods. 

The other method, which is quite extensively followed, is to 
keep a definite number of birds during the pullet year, — say, for 
example, one thousand. At the end of the first year select five 



270 .MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

hundred of the best to be kept for egg production, and bring into 
the laying flock five hundred additional pullets. Subsequently, 
the older half of each flock should be disposed of at the end of its 
second laying season, and five hundred pullets brought in each 
year as new layers. All things considered, this system is un- 
doubtedly the safest and the most productive of satisfactory results 
en the average egg farm. It is the method generally used on the 
average farms of the country, but in some cases the selection is 
much more rigid than here indicated. 

It is, however, true that the greatest number of eggs are laid 
during the pullet year, and the next greatest number the year 
following. Each succeeding year the number of eggs rapidly 
diminishes, and it is doubtful whether, under average conditions, 
it is profitable to keep a bird for egg production after her second 
year unless she is especially valuable for breeding purposes. 

It is well to inspect the birds at the end of the pullet year, and 
make two selections during the summer, — the first one before ex- 
tremely warm weather begins, and the other before the hens are 
put into laying quarters for the winter. In these selections the 
following points should be carefully noted: (1) Discard all birds 
which are not healthy and vigorous. (2) Discard any which have 
not grown well during their first year. (3) Discard any which 
during that time were subject to disease. (4) Spasmodic layers, 
as those which lay rapidly for only a short time followed by long 
periods of rest, are also undesirable. 

Any hens which are not in good laying condition at the first 
selection of the summer can profitably be left over until the fall, 
since there is then an exceptionally good demand for dressed 
poultry, while there is a fairly good price for eggs during the months 
of August and September. When making the last selection in the 
fall, it is wise to withdraw from the mass 5 to 10 per cent of those 
which more nearly approach the ideal type, these being the most 
vigorous, and the ones which have proved to be the best layers. 
They should be put in a special pen, separate from the other birds, 
and mated for breeding purposes, for it is only by selecting and 
breeding from the best that any improvement can be brought 
about. 

Care at Molting Time. — Much interest has been manifested 
in recent years in the subject of the management of the flock dur- 
ing the molting period. Generally it is unprofitable to subject 
the molting flock to a period of fasting followed by a period 



WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD EGG YIELD 277 

of heavy feeding. It has been shown that during the fast the birds 
lose weight and their vitality and stamina decline, and after heavy 
feeding has been resumed it takes much longer to get back the 
weight that was lost; this is usually gotten back before the birds 
start laying. The best practice is to feed the birds on a normal, 
well-balanced ration throughout July and August, and allow them 
to molt naturally; it will be found that some specimens are early 
molters and some late. The late molters are usually the heavy 
producers; therefore, in making the last selection in the fall, birds 
which are rather ragged at that time will usually prove more profit- 
able as layers in the following winter than those which molted 
and got their new plumage very early. Where limited feeding is 
the rule, the egg yield is immediately shut off, and the balance 
of the summer is wasted for that purpose. ' 

It is a fact, however, that the feeding of a certain ration con- 
taining a high percentage of fat or oil and much protein will have 
a tendency to form new feathers and to make them glossy and 
attractive. For this reason, increasing quantities of oil meal and 
sunflower seed are recommended at this time. 

Conclusions in regard to the management of the molt may be 
grouped as follows: (1) It does not pay to force the molt by 
fasting. (2) It is good policy to encourage the hens by careful 
feeding to lay during the late summer and fall. (3) When the 
hens want to lay, let them lay, and the molt will follow in due 
time according to the character of the individual. (4) In most 
individuals the molt is subservient to egg production. 

What Constitutes a Good Egg Yield. — The exact number of 
eggs which a hen will lay in a year varies greatly with the breed, 
and with different individuals in the same breed, and it cannot 
be said that one breed is always a better egg producer than another. 
The strain is a better indication of good production than the breed; 
in other words, it is the breeding back of the individual which 
counts. The individual egg yield from an average flock of birds 
will vary greatly, ranging from 100 to 150, a fair estimate being 
about 130. There are many exaggerated statements in regard to 
a 200-egg strain, but a family of birds averaging such a height of 
production is yet to be developed. There are undoubtedly heavy- 
laying strains, but a successful egg yield depends as well on feeding 
and management, and its maintenance or increase upon future 
breeding and selection. As was said before, the profitable egg 
yield is produced during the winter months; a commercially profit- 



278 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

able yield for December, January, and February is about 30 or 33 
per cent; that is, a well-bred flock, properly cared for and kept 
for egg production, should lay one-third as many eggs as there 
are hens. During the spring and early summer it can usually be 
raised to 50 or 60 per cent, and in some cases even higher for a 
short time. 

Where very small flocks of five to ten birds are kept, it is 
sometimes possible to get exceptionally high individual records, — 
often as high as a 100 per cent egg yield for the flock for periods 
of short duration. In large commercial flocks in which many fowls 
must be considered in getting an average, annual egg yields over 
160 or 170 eggs per bird are exceptions rather than the rule, and 
it can not be expected that whole flocks will average this number 
or anything like it. 

Improvements in Egg Production. — The efforts of the poultry- 
man in managing the laying flock should not only be concentrated 
upon present production, but upon means and methods of increas- 
ing future production. Improvements in this line necessitate a 
close study of the individual, for it is the individual which makes 
the average, and a few poor birds greatly reduce the average of 
the better ones. In a flock of one hundred hens, it will be found 
that, on the average, perhaps 10 to 30 per cent rarely lay an egg 
during the profitable months of the year, another 5 to 10 per cent 
are totally barren, the remainder being fairly good egg layers. The 
best way to obviate this is to select or weed out the poor layers 
and keep only the best. It often proves more profitable to take 
one hundred birds out of a flock of one hundred and fifty, after 
which, with less labor, one can get nearly as many eggs and a much 
more profitable yield per bird. 

Where the selection is not made, the poor birds are fed at the 
expense of the better ones. Improvements will come largely by 
the cooperation of three factors: (1) Rigid selection at the end 
of the pullet year and the mating of a breeding pen from the best 
birds. (2) By trap-nesting the individuals in this breeding pen 
during the winter and early spring, and hatching future layers 
from males and females that are themselves from prolific layers. 
(3) By producing relatively early hatches, and selecting rigidly 
throughout the growing season, keeping only the best youngsters 
for future production. 

The Keeping of Egg Records. — Every poultryman, regardless 
of the number of birds kept, should post in the laying-pen record 



REVIEW 279 

blanks upon which to record daily the number of eggs laid and the 
feed consumed, so that he will be able to tell at any time whether 
or not the flock is proving profitable. These records, if carefully 
kept, furnish a good guide to feeding, and are especially useful on 
large plants where one man does the feeding and another collects 
the eggs. They are also of value in revealing any disease or weak- 
ened conditions of the birds, which is indicated immediately by 
fluctuation in the egg yield. In addition, such records will stimulate 
interest in the work, and quickly bring about a more careful study 
of the problem, on the part of the laborer as well as the owner. 

Nest Eggs. — China eggs should be used in the nests, simply for 
the reason that they induce the birds to lay continuously in the 
same place. If it were not for their presence the birds would, 
after all the eggs had for a few times been removed, seek a new 
place to lay, usually the floor; this would result in cracked or broken 
eggs, many being entirely lost. China eggs are good to use in con- 
nection with trap nests, where it is necessary to keep the birds 
from laying on the floor. 

Egg Eating.— The habit or vice of egg eating usually results 
from the birds getting a taste of a fresh egg when one has been 
cracked in the nest. It is a habit difficult to break when once 
established. The following conditions will tend to prevent their 
acquiring the habit and, possibhy, to suppress the vice : Darkened 
nests ; large roomy nests ; frequent removal of eggs ; the immediate 
removal of any broken shells or egg contents. 

Patented nests are advertised which allow the egg to roll down 
out of reach of the bird, but they are usually undesirable. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give the primary and secondary objects in managing a flock for egg 

production. 

2. Discuss the constant relation between selling price of eggs and tempera- 

ture or season. 

3. Upon what two factors does profit from egg production depend? 

4. Discuss four factors which enter into the profitable management of the 

laying flock. 

5. Discuss the fall management of the laying stock. 

6. What is the best time at which to place pullets in winter quarters? 

7. Point out the necessity of making rigid selection at maturity. 

8. Discuss size of flock. 

9. What are the essential features in winter management of the layers? 

10. Discuss three factors which are necessary to promote cleanliness in the 
laying pen. 



280 MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK 

11. What is the most practical method of handling broody hens? 

12. Name the two most important considerations in summer management. 

13. What is the profitable age of birds as layers? 

14. Discuss the selection of layers for the second year. 

1 5. Discuss management during the fall molt. 

16. What is a good egg yield? 

17. Name three factors which tend toward improvement in egg production. 

18. Are egg records valuable? Why? 

19. Of what use are china nest eggs? 

20. Discuss the vice of egg eating and state how it may be controlled. 

References. — The Yearly Record of Three Flocks, by H. H. Wing, Cornell 
Bulletin 211. A Record of Six Hundred Hens, by Horace Atwood, West 
Virginia Bulletin 115. Cost of Egg Production, by Henry H. Wing, Cornell 
Bulletin 204. Winter Egg Production, by H. R. Lewis, Circular, New Jersey 
Board of Agriculture. Poultry Keeping for Egg Production, by W. P. Brooks, 
Massachusetts Bulletin 122. Feeding and Management of Poultry for Egg 
Production, by J. S. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 211. Essentials of 
Profitable Egg Production, by H. R. Lewis, New Jersey Bulletin 244. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING STOCK. 

The primary object in managing a pen of birds for breeding 
purposes is to secure fertile eggs in season, the aim being not to get 
the greatest possible number of eggs, but to secure the most abund- 
ant yield compatible with a large and uniform size of the eggs and 
a high percentage of fertility. 

Breeding by Selection. — In order to secure this and at the 
same time year by year consistently to build up a strain, one 
point must be carefully borne in mind, for it means many dollars 
a year to the farm poultryman, as well as to the commercial poultry 
breeder. This point is, special matings each year for special breed- 
ing purposes. These are best made just previous to the breeding 
season, usually in January or February, by selecting the finest 
females in the flock and mating them with choice males of known 
pedigree. Such matings should be made early enough to allow at 
least four weeks to elapse before the eggs are saved for hatching, so 
that the effects of previous matings are gone, and a higher degree of 
fertility will be assured. To secure the best results, the breeding 
pens should be relatively small, ranging from ten to fifteen birds. 
Where this is the rule, more care and attention can be given to indi- 
vidual breeders, and the small number of males required will get 
along better than if too many are in the same pen. Such matings are 
advisable for many reasons, the following being the more important : 

1. By breeding from the best the progeny, in accordance with 
the laws of heredity, will not only resemble the parent in many 
respects, but will be of higher type than if the entire flock had been 
used for breeding. 

2. Mass breeding does not assure superiority; in other words, 
when eggs are selected, year after year, from those of the entire 
flock, all that can be expected is to maintain in a succeeding gen- 
eration the same degree of perfection which was attained by the 
parent. In breeding for egg production natural selection is of no 
value. In fact, experience seems to show that it tends to cause 
retrogression. When breeding from the mass many fowls will fall 
below the standard in type and production, and these will work 

havoc in the breeding pen. 

281 



282 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 

3. It is impossible to study individuality when large flocks are 
used for breeding. The possibility of future improvement lies in 
a study of the individual and efforts to raise the average of pro- 
duction; this can best be done by individual matings for breeding 
purposes. Such matings should be based not only upon external 
characteristics, but upon production as well, pedigree record blanks 
being placed in each pen and trap-nest records kept during the 
winter and spring months. With a small number of birds this 
necessitates very little labor, while the benefits accruing and the 
interest created will offset the slight expense. 

4. In matings of this kind a high percentage of fertility will 
be realized, from the fact that greater care can be exercised in 
picking both the females and the breeding male, also because the 
results will be better if one or two males are confined in a small 
pen of this kind than when many males are allowed to run with 
large flocks. It is also much easier to keep track of the condition 
of the breeders and to eliminate anything which might tend to 
infertility. 

5. The handling and selection of eggs from pens of this type 
will be more careful. The percentage of eggs hatched and the 
resulting progeny depend to a great extent upon the care and hand- 
ling of the eggs after they are laid. Where a poultryman has a 
small number of eggs of high value, as is the case with these small 
matings, he will naturally give them closer attention than where 
he has to handle an enormous quantity, which, under normal con- 
ditions, are good only for market. 

Poultrymen, when breeding their prospective layers, should 
seriously consider the advisability of making special breeding pens, 
during the breeding season at least. It is still better to make them 
in the fall and keep accurate records throughout the winter, for 
by so doing the breeder is enabled gradually to improve the quality 
of his birds at very little expense. He can also eliminate the 
very poor layers from the flock; it is by discarding such birds and 
breeding from the best that superiority is ultimately brought 
about. 

Points in Selection of Breeders. — In the selection of desirable 
birds, both male and female, for the breeding pen, the first con- 
sideration should be whether the resulting progeny is to be used 
for meat, eggs, or both, and only ideal birds in these respects 
should be chosen. The breeder must first decide upon an ideal 
type and bear this in mind when he mates the birds. He should 



BREEDING BY SELECTION 283 

base his selection not only upon the external appearance, but upon 
type, as well as the color of the eggs, since uniformity in this 
respect is important. 

Next should be considered the ancestry or pedigree of the 
birds. At the beginning, owing to lack of records, it will be im- 
possible to know the exact ancestry of the breeders, and external 
appearances must count for much; but, when possible, the best 
plan is to purchase the male bird for this foundation stock from a 
reliable breeder who is known to carry the best birds of the 
type desired. Even if he costs a considerable sum of money, a 
good male means much to the future progeny and will be a profit- 
able investment. It is often said that a good male is worth half 
the flock, but he is worth more than that, for even in the first 
generation he means fifty per cent of the blood of the progeny. 
If he should be prepotent as to his characteristics and is bred to 
his daughters, he represents three-fourths of the blood of the prog- 
eny in the second generation; and so on, until, through line breed- 
ing, uniformity of type is attained. If this method be followed 
continuously, it is possible to raise fowls inheriting almost entirely 
the pure blood of the first male. After selection has been thorough, 
it is a very simple matter to trap-nest during the rest of the year, 
as records show that the winter layers are the most prolific, hence 
the ones from which we should breed. 

It is important to choose for the breeding pen females noted for 
their high production of eggs, which fitly represents the commercial 
worth of the individual. They should have laid their eggs, or a 
large proportion of them, during the fall or winter. The male 
used in this pen should be descended from high producers, which 
means he should be the son of a prolific hen. In this way high 
productivity will be inherited from both parents. 

Prepotency of the pair is also of prime importance; they should 
not only possess the desired characteristics, but the power of trans- 
mitting them to their progeny. This trait can be studied for a 
number of generations by means of pedigree records, and is shown 
by the resemblance of offspring to their parents. If a fowl capable 
of high production is not prepotent, and there are many of this 
type, she is of little value in the breeding pen, and it is wise to 
make a study of this from a practical standpoint. 

External characteristics should be considered, yet not be given 
greater weight than the functional. For instance, birds should 
not be introduced into the breeding pen for the sake merely of 



284 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 

external qualities, nor should a bird be discarded from the breed- 
ing pen because her color markings are not of the best. But so 
far as is possible, those birds should be selected which conform to 
the standard, both as to shape and color pattern of plumage. 

The health of the breeding birds is important. None should 
be put in the breeding pen which show signs of disease, and it 
should be the rule to mark with color bands any birds in the gen- 
eral flock, as well as in the breeding pen, which have ever been 
afflicted with disease; for such birds, even after recovery, do not 
make good breeders, and in the case of certain hereditary diseases 
there is always the danger of transmitting them to the progeny. 
Hence the health of both male and female in the past, as well as 
the present, should be noted, and only birds of good constitution 
and vitality and free from taint of disease should be used. 

Age of Breeding Stock. — The age at which hens make the best 
breeders is the second or third laying season. At this time they 
have reached maturity, have attained their maximum develop- 
ment, they produce large eggs, hence large chicks, and the breeder 
has the advantage of having studied their individual possibilities 
in the pullet year. All things considered, yearling hens during 
the second laying season undoubtedly make the best breeders. 
With males, however, it is a good plan to use well-developed cock- 
erels. This is often done, and the best results are secured by using 
a cockerel of a relatively early hatch but full maturity. When, 
for any reason, it is necessary to use pullets for breeding, they 
should be hatched early, fully matured, and mated with old cocks, 
not cockerels. 

Pullets as Breeders. — The mistake is often made, especially by 
poultrymen who desire to hasten matters by hatching their own 
birds, of using immature pullets. This is always poor policy unless 
the pullets are fully matured, and approximately one year old. 
For instance, birds hatched early in January and February may 
perhaps make satisfactory breeders next year in March or April, 
but it is rarefy the case. The following are some of the chief reasons 
why disaster accompanies this practice : 

Where pullets are used as breeders, a large percentage of the 
eggs set are infertile, undoubtedly as the result of immaturity. 
The chicks at hatching time and at maturity prove to be small, 
and the size of the chick will prove to be in direct proportion to 
the size of the egg. 

The resulting progeny show a pronounced lack of vitality, both 



PROPORTION OF MALES TO FEMALES 285 

during their growing period and at maturity; and if the practice be 
continued, there is rapid deterioration. There is a case in point 
where broiler raisers made a practice of crossing White Wyandottes 
and Light Brahmas, as they considered that a better broiler was 
secured, but they found they had to make an original cross from 
standard-bred birds every year in order to secure any degree of 
uniformity in the resultant chicks. In consequence, they were 
obliged to hatch each year from pullets, and it was invariably 
necessary to get new stock, as there was a noticeable loss of vitality 
and decrease in size of the progeny. The trouble was corrected in 
a large measure by using pure-bred White Wyandottes for the 
broiler end of the business, and hatching from yearling hens. 

The progeny resulting from pullet eggs are small and at matu- 
rity do not attain the maximum size. This is due to their early 
handicap in the small size of the egg and of the chick when hatched. 
When continued, this tendency leads gradually to a decrease in 
the size of that particular strain. 

The factors enumerated have in the course of succeeding gen- 
erations of pullet breeding led to a noticeable deterioration, which 
is often expressed as " a running out of the stock." This trouble 
can easily be corrected by breeding from mature birds only. 

Proportion of Males to Females. — The number of females, and 
the relation between females and males in special mating, depend 
upon certain conditions, such as the breed, the size of the flock, 
and the season. 

Where light, active egg breeds are mated, it is unnecessary to 
maintain as great a proportion of males to females as when the 
heavier, slower breeds are kept. For example, one Leghorn male 
to ten females is ample to insure a high fertility, whereas with 
the heavier breeds, which are slow and of less nervous tempera- 
ment, one male to seven or eight females is as high a ratio as is 
conducive to the best results. 

Season also influences this question. When the breeder desires 
eggs for hatching at other than the natural breeding season of 
spring, he must run a greater proportion of males in a flock of 
given size, this ratio, however, depending upon the number of 
eggs being produced. 

The size of the flock, to quite an extent, also affects the fer- 
tility. The smaller the flock, the larger the number of males neces- 
sary to a given number of females, and the larger the flock the 
smaller the proportion of males. The best practice is to mate 



286 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 

them according to a well-established scale, and study the resulting 
fertility. Any great excess of infertility will probably be due to 
poor methods of breeding the birds, rather than to the relative 
number of males. 

Care During Mating Season. — A few points in the care of 
breeding birds during the breeding season must be specially borne 
in mind, and those which follow are of paramount importance. 

The style and type of the house should not be noticeably differ- 
ent from a good open-front laying house, but it should be so 
planned as to get an abundance of fresh air and sunlight. The 
extreme open front is probably the best for this purpose, as, not 
being used during cold weather, the birds need no protection from 
cold. Sunlight in the house is most essential. 

Plenty of room is needed. Breeding birds should never be 
crowded, for this will prevent some of them from getting sufficient 
exercise and sunlight, and will increase the tendency to disease and 
parasites. Moreover, it is impossible to study individual type and 
keep a careful watch on the health of the birds when too many are 
crowded into a pen of insufficient size. 

The birds in the breeding pen should be given plenty of exer- 
cise, and this can best be accomplished by feeding considerable 
grain in deep litter, or by varying the amount of mash which they 
eat, b3>- the length of time which the hopper is left open, according to 
their body fat. Lack of exercise tends to increase deposition of 
fat, and this to decrease fertility. 

Feed for Breeding Hens. — The feed required by the breeding 
hen is almost identical with that of the laying hen, and can be 
supplied by giving a good laying ration. But a few important 
factors must be emphasized. The feed«must contain an abundance 
of nutrients, since any lack of these will decrease the egg yield and 
the chances of fertility ; it may also result in small-sized eggs, which 
is an important and undesirable feature. 

Protein in some form, preferably a high grade of beef scrap, 
has been shown by experiments to be invaluable for maintaining 
a high degree of fertility as well as for promoting a good egg yield. 
Just preceding the breeding season it is safe to give as much as 
fifteen or twenty per cent of beef scrap in the dry mash. But 
previous to this time, or during heavy winter production, forcing 
by this means is tabooed, as it is apt to lower vitality and to cause 
sterility or weak germs later in the season. 

Green feed is a necessity. Experiments have shown that it 



SELECTING EGGS FOR HATCHING 



287 



increases fertility,, and the birds relish it in large quantities. Where 
it has been given to, or withheld from, breeding flocks for alter- 
nate periods, the effect upon fertility has been shown absolutely. 
This advantage is approximately from eight to twelve per cent. 

The feed should contain only a limited amount of carbohydrates 
or fat-forming elements, especially for the heavier breeds, since, 
under normal conditions, they have a tendency to take on flesh 
rapidly, and this results in an excess of fat, a decreased production, 
and accompanying infertility. Plenty of feed and care in the 
method of giving it are most essential. 

Collecting Eggs for Hatching.— Eggs laid during the breeding 
season are to be used for hatching; hence much care should be 
exercised in their collection 
and handling (Fig. 139). After 
mating, it is well to wait from 
two to four weeks before sav- 
ing eggs for breeding purposes, 
two weeks being the usual 
time, but in the case of heavy 
breeds four are necessary and 
safer at any season. (See page 
281.) It is well to collect the 
eggs two or three times a day, 
thus averting the dangers of 
their being broken, or becom- 
ing extremely dirty by a num- 
ber of hens treading on them. 
It also lessens the danger of 
incubation being started by 
broody hens, and in cold weather of the eggs being chilled. Any 
violent motion of the egg, such as shaking or jarring, should be 
avoided, as this is apt to rupture the internal membranes and make 
the egg useless for incubation. 

Selecting Eggs for Hatching. — On collecting the eggs they 
should immediately be sorted, and any egg unfit for hatching 
should be disposed of for the table. Select eggs uniform in type, 
shape, size, and color, discarding all that are cracked, extremely 
dirty, badly shaped, or which have a rough, thin, or irregular shell. 
Extremely small or exceptionally large eggs should not be used 
(Fig. 140). This careful selection of eggs for hatching means the 
saving of money in the course of a season, since all eggs of unsurt- 




Fig. 139. — The egg-collecting pail should 
be of heavy construction to avoid breakage. 
A nest of soft material may be placed in the 
bottom. 



288 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 

able type which would not produce living chicks can at this time 
be disposed of at a profit. If put into an incubator, they would 
result only in a hatch of weak or malformed chicks, and the revenue 
which might have accrued from the sale of eggs would be lost. 

Keeping Eggs for Hatching. — Many eggs are ruined for hatch- 
ing purposes during the time they are held previous to incubation. 
Eggs should be kept at a relatively low temperature, 50° F. being 
the most desirable. Experiments show, and embryologists tell us, 
that the embryo in the egg begins to develop at a temperature 
of 70°, but if this temperature is not maintained it immediately 
dies. During this short period it will not have attained any size, 
and cannot be detected by candling, but may be classed as 




Fiq. 140. — Desirable and undesirable types of hatching eees. Upper row quite uniform 
as to size and shape; lower row, too long, too round, or with imperfect shells. 

infertile. This fact undoubtedly accounts for the exceptionally 
high percentage of apparently infertile eggs on farms and small 
poultry plants during the late winter and early spring, when, in 
order to keep the eggs from freezing, they are placed behind the 
kitchen stove. 

It is advisable to place hatching eggs so that they can be regu- 
larly and carefully turned once a day. The embryo floats in the 
upper portion of the yolk, and, if the egg is left in one position 
for a considerable time, the yolk may come into closer contact 
with the shell, and, if not turned, it may become attached. More- 
over, if eggs are not regularly turned, the air cell will assume an 
abnormal position, since the fluid in an egg has a tendency to 
settle and the air to rise. Eggs left in one position for a consider- 



CARE OF YOUNG BREEDERS UNTIL MATURITY 289 

able time will show air cells of irregular shape, often on the side 
of the egg. The result is that the chick will occupy the wrong 
position in the shell, and in most instances a successful hatching 
is impossible. 

The length of time which the eggs are kept previous to hatch- 
ing bears an important relation to the hatch. Experiments show 
that the longer eggs are kept, regardless of the manner of keeping, 
the smaller will be the percentage of hatch. Eggs set in from two 
to five days will yield the highest percentage of chicks. Under 
average conditions it is not desirable to keep eggs for hatching 
longer than one week, but if they are carefully turned and kept 
at a temperature of 50° or below, satisfactory hatches may be 
obtained after keeping them even three weeks. 

Some Causes of Infertility. — Since infertility proves one of the 
greatest sources of loss, and probably depends in large measure 
upon the breeding stock and the mode of handling eggs, it is well 
to recognize a few of its common causes. They are here outlined 
as follows : 

Immature or extremely aged breeding stock, the former being 
the more common cause. 

Insufficient time between mating and the saving of eggs for 
hatching. 

Weakened vitality of the breeding stock 

Excessively fat breeders. 

Insufficient exercise. 

Lack of green feed. 

Lack of sufficient animal protein. 

Excess of females to one male. 

Unsuitable environment. 

The following are some of the causes of " apparent infertility " 
or death of the germs: (1) Low vitality of breeders; (2) keeping 
eggs at too high a temperature; (3) keeping eggs too long before 
incubation; (4) insufficient turning. 

Fertility is the one thing above all others which the breeder 
is seeking, especially after having mated his fowls for breeding 
purposes, usually at considerable expense. Want of attention to 
any of the above factors may result in a loss of this important 
requisite. 

Care of Young Breeders Until Maturity. — Birds hatched from 
high producing stock, and to be matured for breeding purposes, 
19 



290 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 

require attention differing somewhat from that given to stock 
raised for production only. 

Hatch chicks early, to give them time for full development. 
If this is neglected, and they are forced to premature maturity, 
the resulting progeny will be of small size, and this will be per- 
sistent throughout. 

Brood in small units, so that the individual may have a chance 
to develop to the utmost. Where breeding in extremely large 
flocks is practised, the fowls do not have an equal chance to de- 
velop, some of the smaller ones becoming stunted bj^ insuffi- 
cient feed or crowding, when they otherwise would have developed 
into good birds. From the standpoint of economy and efficiency, 
in the commercial flock the large unit is practicable; but with a 
few birds of exceptionally high quality and value, the smaller 
unit has the advantage. 

Give the growing youngsters free range where there is an abun- 
dance of natural green feed, and well ventilated coops or shelters. 

Separate the sexes as soon as practicable, and raise each inde- 
pendently until maturity. 

Mark indelibfy any chick which shows signs of weakness or 
disease at any stage of its growth. Any that are malformed or 
show decided lack of vitality should be slaughtered. Those of a 
type unsuitable for breeding purposes should be placed in the 
laying pens. 

Give the fowls an unrestricted opportunity to develop to the 
highest possible degree, since when fully developed and matured 
the breeder has a flock of prepotent birds capable of turning out 
the best progeny. 

Summary. — Poultry breeding is a natural process, and arti- 
ficial conditions must be adapted to its requirements. Standard- 
bred birds are of a nervous temperament and possess great 
powers of production and reproduction, but this indicates that 
they need extra care and attention. Under normal conditions 
these birds lay but few eggs during the spring season, when it is 
easiest to hatch and rear the young, their sole instinct being to 
reproduce their kind. With birds under domestication the idea 
is not only to reproduce them in kind, but to obtain a commercial 
product, and, in order to develop this industry to its highest de- 
gree, man has transformed the fowl into a " machine." Here the 
conditions differ from the natural instincts and habits of fowls, 
and, in order to run such a machine to its highest efficiency 



REVIEW 291 

and to bring about steady improvement, constant thought is 
necessary. One cannot expect to get maximum results or superi- 
ority in his flock without more or less continuous care in selection 
and mating. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is the chief object in managing breeding stock? 

2. Discuss the desirability of selected matings for breeding purposes. 

3. Discuss six points which should be considered in selecting breeding birds. 

4. What is the most desirable age for breeding stock? 

5. Give five disadvantages resulting from using pullets as breeders. 

6. Discuss conditions regulating the number of males and females in the 

breeding pen. 

7. Give three features which require special consideration during the mating 

season. 

8. What four special points should be considered in feeding breeders? 

9. What points do you consider of special significance in collecting eggs for 

hatching? 

10. What points should be considered when selecting hatching eggs? 

11. Mention three factors which affect the keeping quality of hatching eggs. 

12. Give nine causes which tend to produce infertility. 

13. Mention four causes of apparent infertility or early death of the embryo. 

14. What five points are of special significance in the care of young breeders 

until maturity? 

15. Compare the wild bird and the domesticated species in reference to re- 

production and artificial breeding. 

Reference. — Fertility of Eggs, North Dakota Farmers' Bulletin 251. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL. 

Birds, considered as a great class of animals, are one of the 
most clearly defined classes in the animal kingdom. There is a 
great variety of types, representing different forms, sizes, and 
habits, yet in general their structure is very similar. Birds are 
more closely allied to the reptile group than to the mammals. 
There are over eight thousand species in the class. 

The fowl is a warm-blooded, air-breathing, egg-laying, feathered 
vertebrate, with four limbs. Those in front are for flying (which use 
has been greatly diminished during domestication), while the hind 
ones are for walking, scratching, perching, and swimming. Since 
the fowl is a true bird and is organized for flight, it possesses an ex- 
ceedingly light skeleton. Its muscular tissue is capable of great con- 
traction, and its respiratory system is exceedingly well developed. 

The Bird's Skeleton. — There are four marked points in which 
the bird's skeleton differs materially from mammals: 

1. The extreme lightness of the bones, making flight possible. 

2. The tendency of bones to fuse, thus giving greater rigidity 
to the body proper. 

3. The adaptation of the limbs to allow of walking as well as 
flight. 

4. The great length of the spinal column, especially the neck, 
this being as long as the rest of the column combined. 

The bird's skeleton (Fig. 141) is very compact, much more so 
than that of mammals, and the bones are harder and whiter. It 
contains fewer bones than the mammal, many being grown to- 
gether to form one, as the skull bones, the dorsal vertebra, and 
the tarsal and metatarsal bones. The neck is very long and flex- 
ible, giving the bird great latitude in movements of the head. The 
ribs are joined in the middle as well as to the backbone and sternum, 
the latter being highly developed to furnish the seat or location 
of the muscles used in flight. 

Wings. — Parts corresponding to the hands and forearms of the 
human skeleton are found in the wings of the bird, and from them 
are developed respectively the primary and secondary wing feathers. 
The wings are carried folded on the back. 
292 



THE BIRD'S SKELETON 



293 



The hind limbs of the bird represent more modifications and a 
greater number of bones. The tibia is the principal bone, while 
the most noticeable characteristic is the fused tarsus and meta- 




Fig. 141. — Skeleton of fowl. 1, Upper jaw; 2, lower jaw; 3, nasal cavity; 4, eye cavity; 
5, skull; 6, neck vertebrae; 7, scapula; 8, clavicles (wish bone); 9, digits; 10, bones of fore- 
wing; 11, ulna; 12, radius; 13, humerus; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, femur; 17, acetabulum; 
18, ischium; 19, pygostyle or tail bones; 20, breastbone or sternum; 21, tibia; 22, tarso- 
metarsus; 23, spur; 24, rear toe; 25, toes. 

tarsus. The thigh bones are exceedingly short, and when the 
bird is in full plumage are never seen. The fowl normally has only 
four toes. The fifth one is missing. (The Dorking and Houdan 



294 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL 

are exceptions). The toes end in claws which aid in scratching 
and perching. The four toes are arranged with three in front and 
one behind, except in the five-toed breeds, which have two behind. 
The spur above the toes is most developed in males as a means 
of defence. 

The sternum, or breast bone, is one of the most highly developed 
bones in the fowl's skeleton. It is very large and projects far back 
beyond the ribs, forming a large part of the abdominal wall. It 
is so situated as to protect the vital organs lying above it. There 
is a thin blade called the keel, which forms an attachment for the 
flight muscles, and its size varies greatly as the sizes of the wings 
vary. Some breeds with small wings have no incentive to flight. 
They have small keels and a correspondingly small amount of 
breast meat. 

The two clavicles, commonly called in the human skeleton the 
collar bones, are thin bones, the lower points being attached and 
the upper slightly spread, thus forming a spring which aids in 
working the wings. The united clavicles are often called the " wish 
bone." 

The fowl's head is small in comparison with other body parts, 
and is characterized by lightness and the fusion of cranial bones. 
The jaws are commonly called mandibles and form the bird's beak. 
Just back of the upper mandible are the nasal cavities, which are 
relatively small and open by means of small slits into the interior 
of the mouth. These slits are found open when the bird's head is 
down, and closed when the head is elevated; hence the necessity 
for the bird to raise its head when drinking, to keep the water 
from running out of the nostrils. 

The vertebral column of the fowl is characterized by the great 
length of the neck, by its mobility, and by the rigidity of the back, 
loin, and tail. 

The pelvic arch is composed of the ilium and acetabulum above 
and the ischium coming down each side, forming what are com- 
monly called the " lay bones " in the hen. These four bones 
assume various positions at different stages of the laying period. 

The Physiological Organization of the Fowl. — It is well to 
understand the elementary parts of the animal structure and their 
relation to one another. These are the cells, various kinds of 
tissues, organs, and their resulting system. 

A cell is the most elementary living part of the body. There 
are millions of these, of various shapes, according to the tissues 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM 295 

they form. They are very minute. Each living and growing cell 
is made up of a cell wall containing a mass of protoplasm with its 
nucleus, cell sap, and other cell contents. Protoplasm resembles 
the white of an egg, but may be jellylike in consistency. Living 
cells grow and multiply in large numbers together. Those of one 
kind or structure are united to form a certain kind of tissue. 

There are six kinds of tissues recognized in the body: (1) 
Muscular tissue; (2) epithelial tissue, or skin; (3) nervous tissue; 
(4) connective tissue, which surrounds other tissues and organs, 
holding them in place; (5) bony tissue; (6) fatty tissue. 

In order to accomplish a definite purpose and to work to the 
best advantage, several kinds of tissues are usually associated 
together to form organs. For example, the heart is a group of 
different tissues working for a definite purpose. Each organ has 
a work to perform, which is closely associated with other organs 
working in cooperation with it. Such a combination is called a 
system. The following systems make up the working parts of 
the fowl's body: Muscular, digestive, circulatory, respiratory, 
reproductive, and nervous systems. The nervous system, and 
others of minor importance to the poultryman, will not be dis- 
cussed here. 

Muscular System. — The muscular system has a double func- 
tion to perform in the case of the fowl: (1) To furnish the means 
by which the bird can move, (2) to cover the bones and fill out 
the body contour. This latter function tends to give the show 
bird the highest degree of type and perfection of bodily propor- 
tions and the standard shape. 

The character and extent to which the muscular tissue has 
been developed determine in a large measure the value of the bird 
for table purposes. The character and form of muscles in any 
breed are largely inherited, but they can be influenced by feeding 
and management. For example, the effect of close confinement 
compared with liberal exercise on the structure of the muscular 
tissue is easily shown. The former will produce soft flesh, fine in 
texture, and relatively free from connective tissue; the latter will 
produce less flesh, coarse in structure, with an increased amount 
of connective tissue. 

Muscles vary greatly in size and thickness in different parts of 
the body. Those of most importance, from a commercial stand- 
point, are found chiefly on the breast and limbs. The former are 
the muscles which control flight. 



296 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL 



The Digestive Organs. — The digestive system is one of the 
most complex combinations of organs in the bird's body (Fig. 142). 



a. Tongue 

upper bill removed 




Fig. 142. — The digestive tract. 



Teeth, though found in prehistoric birds, are wanting in birds of 
the present time. The digestive organs of domestic fowls are as 



CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



297 



follows: (1) The beak, or mandibles, for picking up feed and 
sometimes cutting or tearing it; (2) the gullet, through which 
feed passes, after being moistened in the mouth with saliva; (3) 
the crop, or temporary receptacle; (4) the stomach (proventriculus), 
where gastric juice is secreted and mixed with it; (5) the gizzard, 
a strong muscular sac, where, by means of small stones and sharp 
grit (serving as the teeth of the bird), the feed is ground more finely 
than in the mouths of many 
of the larger animals; and (6) 
the intestine, a long tube which 
receives the pulped material 
from the gizzard, subjects it * 
to the action of several juices 
from the pancreas, the liver, 
and other glands, and absorbs 
the digested and dissolved por- 
tions; the undigested residue 
passes along to (7) the cloaca, 
where it mixes with the waste 
materials from the genito-uri- 
nary canal, which empties into 
the intestine at this point. 

Circulatory System. — The 
circulatory system of the fowl 
is very similar to that of mam- 
mals, being composed of a 
heart with four cavities, from 
which the blood is pumped to 
all parts of the body, through 
blood vessels, some of which 
convey nourishment, while oth- 
ers purify the body by carry- 
ing away its waste material. 
The blood of birds is about 
two or three degrees warmer 
than that of mammals. 

The circulatory system is composed of two distinct circuits or 
courses which the blood takes in passing through the body. The 
diagram (Fig. 143) shows the course of the blood. The heart is 
designed to pump two streams of blood at once, its left side pump- 
ing the blood through the body and the right side through the 




Fig. 143. — Circulatory system of the fowl. 



298 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOWL 



TesticZe-s 



lungs, just as in the human system. (Refer to text-books on physi- 
ology for a description of the human circulation.) 

Respiratory System. — Breathing is carried on in the lungs. The 
air enters these through the trachea or windpipe, which is a longtube, 
dividing just before it reaches the lungs into two bronchial tubes, 
one of which enters each lung. It is in the lungs that the blood 
gives up the poisonous material which it has gathered, and takes 
up its supply of oxygen to carry through the body. The lungs are 

surrounded by large air sacs 



in the breast and abdomen, 
there being nine in all. These 
increase the size of the bird in 
proportion to its weight and 
enable it to fly better. 

Reproductive Systems. — 
The female's reproductive 
system consists of two main 
organs, the ovaries and ovi- 
duct. The hen has two ova- 
ries, only one of which is 
active. In general this re- 
sembles a bunch of grapes, 
the ova (or eggs) varying in 
size from small specks to full- 
size yolks, when the bird is 
in condition for laying. Each 
ovum (or egg) as it comes to 
maturity enters the oviduct, 
where it may be fertilized by 
the sperm of the male; as it 
passes down the oviduct suc- 
cessive layers of albumin are 
added, and finally just before 
being laid the shell is put on. 



v&$ deferens 



Cloaca 




Fig. 144. — Male reproductive system. 



A description of the formation of the egg is given in Chapter XVIII. 

The reproductive glands of the male bird, called testicles, two 
in number, are near the backbone just in front of the kidneys and 
about opposite the last ribs. These secrete the male sperm, which 
is transported through two tubes, called vas deferens, to the 
cloaca (Fig. 144). 

The Development of the Senses. — The fowl has a well-devel- 



REVIEW 299 

oped brain, but the senses are much inferior to those of mammals 
in general. The sense of touch is limited, since the skin is covered 
with feathers, the quills of which end in small bulbs or hollows 
under the skin. The sense of smell is not very keen, while the 
sense of taste varies considerably in individuals. All fowls reject 
things which are objectionable to them; probably, however, this 
is as much from sight as from taste ; but it is clearly demonstrated 
that they have a sense of taste quite well developed, since they 
show a partiality for certain kinds of feed, whether there is any 
great difference in the physical nature of the feeds or not. Palata- 
bility is an important consideration in poultry feeding. The sense 
of sight is very highly developed as well as the sense of hearing. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give a physiological description of the domestic fowl. 

2. Name the leading parts of the bird's skeleton. 

3. Discuss four points in which the bird's skeleton differs from that of 

mammals. 

4. Discuss briefly or define cells, tissues, organs, and systems. 

5. Name several tissues; several organs; several systems. 

6. What are the functions of the muscular system? 

7. Locate and give the functions of the various organs of the digestive system. 

8. Give two uses for the circulation of blood through the bird. 

9. How does the plan of circulation compare with that in the human body? 

Describe it. 

10. Locate and give the use of the respiratory system. 

11. Discuss the special senses in fowls. 

Reference. — Ligaments of the Oviduct of the Domestic Fowl, by M. R. 
Curtis, Maine Bulletin 176. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN. 

The reproductive organs of birds, and especially of the domestic 
fowl, are among the most complicated, since they must not only 
produce the ovum, but must enclose it in a protective envelope 
or sac, and supply nourishment for the embryo when growth sub- 
sequently takes place. As the ovum is developed after it is out- 
side of the body, this elaborate protection is necessary in order 
to preserve it in its original form, to retard evaporation of water, 
and at the same time to permit the absorption of oxygen and mois- 
ture. The reproductive organs are composed of the ovary and 
the oviduct (Fig. 145). The oviduct is divided into two distinct 
parts, one secreting albumin and the other the shell. 

The Ovary. — The active ovary lies on the left side of the body 
posteriorly, close to the backbone. It resembles closely a bunch 
of grapes which vary in size from that of a walnut, when the ovum 
is fully developed, down to that of a pin-point. The ovum corre- 
sponds to the yolk or. yellow part of the egg. All hens have at 
maturity a certain number of embryonic ova, which represent all 
the eggs or yolks which it will be possible for them to develop dur- 
ing life, the rapidity with which these will mature depending upon 
management and feeding. The development of the ovum is 
brought about through an excess of feed, that is, material beyond 
what is required for maintenance and growth ; hence egg production 
cannot attain its maximum unless plenty of feed be given. By 
the accumulation of yellow or yolk the ovum is brought to matur- 
ity, the yolk sac or calyx distends, and, as development progresses, 
the yolk sac becomes detached from the ovary and completely 
covers the ovum. When the ovum reaches maturity, the calyx 
or yolk sac gradually recedes along the white stigma line, allowing 
the egg or yolk proper to slip from the capsule, at which time it 
drops into the expanded, upturned opening of the oviduct. The 
remaining calyx immediately contracts, rapidly diminishes in size, 
and is soon entirely absorbed. 

The oviduct is a large tube, whitish in color, which starts from 
a point just below the ovary and ends at the cloaca. During the 
breeding season it becomes much enlarged, and is covered with a 
300 



THE OVIDUCT 



301 



network of fine blood vessels. The upper opening of the oviduct 
is expanded in the shape of a funnel to facilitate the entrance 
of the ovum when it emerges from the yolk sac. The duct on its 



Oir&,ry 



CeLlyx orjyolk sa.ck 



La^st portion of duct 
opened. showing r 
completed egy J 



J => &ss<&G , e "throicph 
which, the eg>g 
is expelled,. 




Yolk entering the 
funnel- shaped 
oviduct 



Second port: ion, 
of ihe o>vid-u,c.t 
wAere the silbu.7n.in, 
is formed 



Third portion where 
the shell is o-dded 



"Vent or clcxt-ca. 



Fig. 145. — Female reproductive organs. 

way to the cloaca lies in folds, being lapped upon itself three times 
before it finally passes into the cloaca. 

When the yolk enters the oviduct it consists of a yellow mass, 
called the " vitellus," enclosed in a thin membrane, the " vitelline " 
membrane. Fertilization takes place in the upper part of the ovi- 
duct before any albumin has been added, and if at this time the 



302 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 

yolk be examined there will be found, just beneath the vitelline 
membrane, a small circular whitish body, about one-eighth of an 
inch in diameter, which will always float uppermost, no matter in 
what position the egg is laid. In the fertilized egg this disk has 
three well-defined areas, — an outer white rim, within which is a 
clear zone, and in the centre of this zone a somewhat elongated 
structure which is the embryo itself. These three parts constitute 
what is known as the blastoderm of the hen's egg, the part whose 
function is reproduction ; all the rest of the egg is directly utilized 
for nutrition and protection. 

The passage of the egg down the oviduct, from this time on, 
is marked by the following processes : 

By the muscular contraction of the walls of the oviduct, the 
yolk is propelled to the cloaca. The passage of the yolk stimulates 
the walls of the duct to secrete successive layers of albumin. The 
first layer is thick, and has thickened portions which are fastened 
to the opposite poles of the yolk, to hold it in place. These thick- 
ened portions are called chalazse; they are heavy twisted threads 
of albumin. After the thick layer of albumin two layers are added, 
each of which is thinner and more watery than the preceding one. 
When the egg reaches the lower or contracted part of the oviduct, 
two very tenacious but thin layers of albumin are added, to form 
the inner and outer shell membranes. The air cell, which is always 
perceptible at the larger end of the fully developed egg, is not 
present at first, but is formed by the evaporation of the fluids of 
the albumin and the entrance of atmospheric air to replace these 
fluids after the egg is laid. Just before the egg is discharged into 
the cloaca, it passes through a section of the oviduct where the 
shell is added, in the form of a coating of thin liquid secretion 
containing lime, which hardens quickly. 

The perfect egg with its hardened shell is retained in the cloaca 
a short time before being laid. The power to hold the egg in the 
cloaca is under the control of the bird, so that, if she is frightened 
from her nest or unable to reach it, she can retain the egg for some 
time, the exact period varying with individuals. 

The parts of the completed egg are the shell, shell membranes, 
albumin, and yolk (Fig. 146). The use of each is discussed in the 
following paragraphs. 

The shell is the outer envelope of the egg, and its function is 
primarily that of protection. Soft-shelled eggs are those that have 
either no shell or else a very thin one. This is due to a deficiency 



THE PARTS OF THE COMPLETED EGG 



303 



of lime salts in the feed, hence the necessity of supplying lime. It 
is estimated that one hen laying 100 eggs of average size will pro- 
duce in a year about 22 ounces of carbonate of lime. The bird gets 
this large amount of lime from such materials as shells, dust, stones, 
and pieces of bone, which it constantly picks up when at liberty; 
if confined, oyster shell is given to supply the deficiency. The egg- 
shell itself is composed chiefly of carbonate of lime, phosphate of 
lime, and a little animal matter. It is extremely porous, hence 
permeable by air, which is needed to supply oxygen to the embryo 
during incubation. Microscopic examination reveals thousands of 



outer shell- 
mernbrane. 




Vltellne membrane 



■ Inner shell membrane. 
Fig. 146. — -Parts of the completed egg. 



minute pores in the shell, by means of which evaporation is going 
on constantly from the time of laying. The degree of this evapora- 
tion is a sure indication of the age of the egg or the conditions 
under which it has been kept. Evaporation proceeds much more 
rapidly in warm weather than in cold, and in dry air than in moist; 
hence the difficulty of keeping eggs fresh for any length of time 
in summer. This time could be greatly increased if it were pos- 
sible to close these pores or openings and thus stop evaporation, 
which, however, would make the egg unfit for hatching. 

Shell Membranes. — Immediately under the shell are two mem- 
branes, called the inner and outer shell membranes. Both of 
these adhere closely to the shell, the outer one being in direct con- 



304 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 

tact, while the inner one is adherent to the outer. At the large 
end, however, they are separate, and form a small cavity or sac 
known as the air cell. This is filled with air which has been drawn 
into the egg owing to the evaporation of the liquids, the size of 
the air cell increasing as the age of the egg increases. If this cell 
is found in any place but the large end of the egg, it usually denotes 
that the egg has been kept for some time, and has not been turned ; 
thus the liquids settle and force the air to the highest point. 

Albumin. — Next is seen the albumin or white of the egg. This 
is a translucent liquid without definite structure, and, in the fresh 
egg, free from smell and taste. The albumin is easily coagulated 
by heat, only about 140 degrees being required. It is soluble 
in* water. Under chemical analysis albumin is rather complex, 
being composed of varying proportions of oxygen, hydrogen, sul- 
phur, phosphorus, and carbon. The albumin can be readily 
divided into three distinct layers; a thin outer coat, a thicker 
middle layer, and a very much thickened inner stratum. In the 
latter can be found the chalazse, which are thickened strings or 
cords of albumin, having an outer terminus in the outer layer of 
albumin, and an inner securely interwoven in and around the yolk; 
they run lengthwise of the egg, are twisted in opposite directions, 
and hold the yolk in place. In appearance they resemble twisted 
cords. The albumin has two distinct functions; the first is that 
of protection, by forming a thick layer of material around the 
germ, at the same time that it furnishes the material in which it 
floats, thus protecting it from shocks which otherwise might prove 
fatal. The second purpose is that it provides material which goes 
directly into the formation of tissue for the embryo. 

The Yolk. — The yolk or ovum may be called the most import- 
ant part of the egg, since it contains within its outer wall, or vitel- 
line membrane, the germ or embryo and also the nourishment of 
the growing embryo. The yolk is nearly round, and light yellow 
in color, the degree or intensity of color varying with the character 
of the feed. In composition the yolk is considerably richer than 
the albumin, especially in phosphate of lime, there being but a 
trace in the albumin. The yolk is composed of two distinct por- 
tions arranged in concentric rings or layers, one being light in 
color and not coagulable upon the addition of heat, the other 
darker yellow in color and easily coagulable at a high temperature. 
In the lighter portion of the yolk is a hollow or indentation, in the 
upper part of which, and next to the vitelline membrane, lies the 



MALFORMED EGGS AND THEIR CAUSES 305 

germ, which can easily be distinguished by its whitish color and 
circular shape. 

The function of the yolk is to nourish the chick for the first 
few hours after hatching and during the early stages of its growth. 
It is just as essential to the young chick as is the colostrum to the 
calf. It supplies nutrients in easily digestible form, at the same 
time exerting a laxative influence which starts the digestive 
processess. 

Composition of the Egg. — Aside from its shell, and being funda- 
mentally a chick, the hen's egg resembles in its composition the 
adult bird. Analysis of the dry matter of the egg, exclusive of 
the shell, shows the following proportion of constituents, water 
not considered: 49.8 protein; 3.4 ash; 38.5 fat. 

Considering the total dry matter in the whole egg, shell in- 
cluded, we find the proportions to be: 38.5 protein; 35.6 ash; 
25.4 fat. 

A fresh-laid egg with a good sound shell, including water, 
shows the following analysis: 13.2 protein; 11.4 shell, 0.8 other 
ash; 8.9 fat; 65.7 water. 

The ash found in the egg, aside from the shell, is rich in phos- 
phate. The shell consists almost entirely of carbonate of lime. 

Malformed Eggs and their Causes. — Soft-shelled eggs are due 
either to the absence of shell-forming material in the feed or to 
disease in the lower part of the oviduct which results in an insuffi- 
cient secretion of lime salts. In rare cases, however, they may be 
caused by the fowls not eating enough of shell-forming material, 
even when an abundant supply is available. Sometimes the bird 
is too fat, and this results in an absence of muscular tonicity, the 
egg being passed down the oviduct so rapidly that the secretions 
are not supplied in sufficient amount. 

In the ordinary course of eggs down the oviduct, they should 
mature at such times that only one will be laid at a time; but in 
consequence of improper feed, usually too much of carbohydrates 
or fat, the bird deposits excessive fat, the organs contract and do 
not permit the free passage of the ovum, finally one of two things 
may result. Two ova may pass into the oviduct nearly at the 
same time, or one may be held near the upper end until another is 
formed there, when the combined force of the two will propel 
them down the oviduct, this resulting in an egg being laid with 
two yolks, — the commonly seen double-yolked egg, which is usually 
of excessive size because of the twin yolks. 
20 



306 



FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 



Another peculiar condition which is often interesting to the 
uninitiated is the presence of a perfectly formed egg within another 
egg. This is due to the fact that, by the contraction of the ovi- 
duct, the completed egg has been forced back into the albumin- 
secreting section of the duct after being coated by the shell liquid. 
It remains there until it is met by another yolk, when the two 
pass together through the uterus, or shell-forming part of the ovi- 
duct, and the entire mass receives another shell. 

Extremely small eggs are common at the beginning or end of a 
laying period; this is in part due to a diminution in the size, hence 
in the lessened secreting power, of the oviduct. 




Fig. 147. — Abnormal eggs shown in comparison with a normal one. 
form is due to the contraction of the oviduct. 



The elongated 



Distorted and misshapen eggs are accounted for by a diseased 
condition of the lower part of the oviduct and an accompanying 
contraction which prevents the expansion necessary when the egg 
leaves the oviduct and enters the cloaca; consequently, it is forced 
through a small opening and, as the shell is soft, is compressed 
into peculiar or elongated shape. These malformations are largely 
the effects of domestication, and are rare when the flock receives 
proper care and feeding (Fig. 147). 

Fertile Eggs. — Every egg, whether fertile or not, contains the 
female germ, which, however, cannot develop or grow until it has 
been fertilized by the male germ. The latter is contained in a 



FORMATION OF THE CHICK 307 

cavity at the upper end of the oviduct, and there, as the naked 
yolk passes into the oviduct, before albumin has been added, the 
necessary union takes place. 

It is a common but mistaken belief among the inexperienced 
that a male bird in the pen is necessary for the production of eggs. 
This is true so far as the laying of fertile eggs is concerned; and, 
while it is true that the primary object of egg production is repro- 
duction, yet impregnation is unnecessary for the production of the 
egg, and hens will lay just as many eggs when no male bird runs 
with the flock as they will with one. In fact, it is becoming a 
rule on the larger egg farms to produce infertile eggs for market, 
since they are less likely to spoil, and there is no danger of the 
germ developing and ruining the eggs for eating. Fertilization is 
not an incentive to egg production among domestic fowls. 

The egg, then, is a productive sac surrounding a female germ 
cell, which may or may not be fertilized. In the latter case the 
egg is termed infertile and cannot possibly be hatched, because to 
produce life there must be the union of the male and female 
germ cells. 

Formation of the Chick. — The first stage in the development 
of the embryo takes place before the egg is laid, probably due to 
the heat from the bird's body. This change is termed " segmen- 
tation," and results in the multiplication of cells which form a 
cap over the germ vesicle and a group of cells under it. In the 
normal egg, development is arrested at this stage, and a certain 
amount of heat is necessary to renew it after the egg is laid. 

After segmentation and application of the right degree of heat, 
incubation begins. The germinal disk divides into two layers, 
between which a third stratum soon forms. The upper layer 
(called the epiblast) produces ultimately the skin, brain, spinal 
cord, eye, and internal ear. From the lower layer (hypoblast) is 
formed the lining of the digestive tract, while from the middle 
layer (mesoblast) are developed all the other organs, such as bones, 
nerves, and muscles. This middle layer thickens rapidly, forming 
two parallel ridges running lengthwise of the germ, with a groove 
between them which is termed the medullary canal; the walls of 
this groove gradually extend and finally meet, forming a tube or 
neural groove, in which the brain and spinal cord develop later. 

The notochord just below the tube can be distinguished from 
the first day of incubation. It marks out the future bony axis of 
the body, or the vertebral column. From the notochord are 



308 



FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 



formed certain lateral plates, which later form the ribs. From 
the above brief description it is evident that even during the first 
day, many of the important structures of the body are clearly 
outlined (Fig. 148). 

During the second day of incubation the remaining important 
structures take shape, and those already formed develop further; 
there is a decided increase in the number of the protovertebrse; 



Forebr&in 
/fidbrain. 
If in d drain 
Auditory pit 
Viteline vein 
I\i.ture 

provertebr&e 

2fedtj.2la.-ry fold. 

Ta-il fold 

Area. peZluoida 




Fig. 148. — Chick embryo thirty-six 
hours old. 



Fig. 149. — Chick embryo three 
days old. 



the tubular heart and larger blood vessels are formed. Most 
noticeable of all is the development in the region of the head of the 
three cerebral vesicles at the extremity of the neural groove ; these 
are called the anterior, middle, and posterior vesicle. In front of 
them the developing cerebrum may be seen. The eye or optic 
vesicle develops from the front cerebral vesicle, while the rudi- 
mentary ear and the auditory pit are formed from the posterior 
vesicle. The early formation of the heart and the rapid develop- 
ment of the vascular system are important features of the second 



FORMATION OF THE CHICK 309 

day's growth; these are essential for the nourishment of the embryo, 
hence they are early active, delivering a constant blood stream. 

The progress during the third day (Fig. 149) is in the nature of 
continued development of structures already formed rather than 
in the formation of new ones. Up to this time the embryo has 
been lying face downward, but it now turns on its left side with 
the head bent downward. The vitelline circulation is completed, 
the heart is subdivided and further developed, and additional 
arteries and veins are formed. Some of the special senses are now 
formed or developed; among the most noticeable are the formation 
of the lens of the eye and the development of the nasal pits. The 
cerebral hemispheres are more clearly defined, the hindbrain sepa- 
rates into the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and many of the 
larger nerves branch out from the nerve centres. The alimentary 
canal increases in size and its parts are more clearly differentiated ; 
the oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum becoming well defined. 
The lungs now make their appearance as an outgrowth from the 
alimentary tract. By the third day the allantois can be outlined ; 
it is a temporary membranous structure closely associated with 
the alimentary tract, and from it is soon developed a complete 
system of blood vessels which carry blood to and fro. On the 
ninth day it is well developed, and can be seen spreading over 
the back of the embryo, close to the shell. It is the medium through 
which respiration is effected in the embryo, and at hatching time 
it shrivels up and is cast off. 

The fourth day is characterized by a rapid increase in the size of 
the embryo, combined with a noticeable diminution in the amount 
of albumin, and the embryo lies very close to the shell. The vascu- 
lar area at this time is about one inch in diameter and carries an 
increasing amount of blood. The body proper develops rapidly, not 
only in size but in the formation of the limbs, the legs being short 
and thick, while the wings are long and slender. In the female 
rudimentary sexual organs make their appearance on this day. 

From the fifth day the growing embryo reveals development 
rather than the formation of structures, since these are now estab- 
lished in greater or less degree. On the fifth day, certain cartilaginous 
processes can be detected, which subsequently develop into bones. 

The sixth and seventh days mark that special development in 
the embryo of the fowl which is to distinguish it from that of a 
mammal or reptile, for in the first four or five days the develop- 
ment of all vertebrates is very similar. After this time the more 



310 FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 

pronounced specializations are the definite formation of body walls 
and a rudimentary growth of feathers. At this period the white 
or albumin has practically disappeared. The beak is formed, and 
gives the embryo a distinctly birdlike appearance. The head is 
proportionately large, and the eyes extremely so. The body is 
very bulky, owing to the large size of the heart and liver. The 
legs have increased greatly in size, and the division of the extrem- 
ities into toes is very marked. The yolk sac, while yet large, is 
very flabby, from the absorption of nutriment. 

The feathers may be distinctly seen on the ninth day. They 
are enclosed in a small sac, in which they grow to about one- 
quarter of an inch in length before hatching time, but the sac is 
not broken until then. By the thirteenth day the beak and nails 
have taken on a hard, horny appearance. 

Motion can be discerned in the embryo on about the sixth day, 
but it is very slight, and there is no pronounced movement of the 
entire embryo until the fourteenth day. Up to this latter time the 
chick has been lying with its body at right angles to the long axis 
of the egg. Now it turns, so that the body lies lengthwise of the 
egg, the beak in contact with the inner membrane of the shell 
about one-quarter of the way from the large end of the egg. The 
air cell is now much enlarged, owing to evaporation of the fluids, 
and the additional space so formed is utilized by the chick at 
hatching. Infrequent turning of the eggs, or weakness of the 
embryo, will not permit the change of position on the fourteenth 
day; there will be what is termed a "false presentation," and, in the 
majority of cases, the chick will not be able to get out of the shell. 

By the twentieth day the embryo will have grown so that it 
occupies all of the egg except the air cell, the yolk will have been 
nearly all absorbed, and what remains is drawn into the body 
at the umbilicus (navel opening), the body walls closing over 
the opening. This process of absorption is an important factor 
in the early life of the chick, since it is the source of nourishment 
until the chick can digest and assimilate feed from outside sources. 

Process of Hatching. — The process of hatching is one of the 
most striking phenomena connected with the development of the 
young chick, and is interesting alike to the experienced and in- 
experienced. The process is approximately as follows : 

When ready to leave the shell, which is usually on the twentieth 
or twenty-first day, the chick tears the inner shell membrane with 
its beak, stretches its neck, and, occupying the extra air space, at 
once begins to breathe the air which it contained. As a result of 




REVIEW 311 

this extra oxygen, the pulmonary circulation becomes active, the 
embryonic circulation ceases, and the allantois shrivels up, since 
its use is no longer needed. The chick now has room to move its 
head/and it begins to break the shell by dealing blow after blow with 
its beak upon one spot on 
the inside until the shell 
is punctured (Fig. 150). 
This performance is re- 
peated, in a new place 
each time, until the shell is 
broken all around about 
one-third of the distance 
from the large end. All 

the Chick nOW has tO do FlG 150— Hatching time. One egg completely 

to get OUt from the Shell is pipped ready for the final effort of the chick; the 

„ 111 , c other chick is resting after the effort. (Photo by 

to force these two parts of Hearson, Ltd.) 

the shell apart by pressing 

its feet against the small end and its head against the large one, 

which it throws off. It takes the chick some time to dry off and 

get the use of its legs, and usually from one to three hours elapse 

after hatching before it becomes very active. 

REVIEW. 

1. Why need the fowl's reproductive system be so complicated? 

2. The hen's reproductive system is composed of what two parts? 

3. Where is the ovary located and what is its work? 

4. Describe the appearance of the ovary and yolk sacs. 

5. Describe the maturity of an ovum and its entrance into the oviduct. 

6. What is the oviduct? What are its uses? 

7. Where is the egg fertilized? 

8. Describe the changes in the egg during its passage through the oviduct. 

9. Enumerate the parts of a completed egg, and give the use of each part. 

10. Give the approximate composition of the whole egg, with and without 

the shell. 

11. Mention the types of malformed eggs, and give the cause of each. 

12. Discuss the fertile and infertile egg. 

13. Describe the development of the embryo which takes place before the egg 

is laid. 

14. Describe the first day's development during incubation. 

15. Describe the appearance of the embryo when thirty-six hours old. 

16. Describe the appearance of the embryo when seventy-two hours old. 

17. Give subsequent development from third day to hatching time. 

18. Describe the process of hatching. 

Reference. — Reproductive Organs of the Hen, by D. F. Laurie, South 
Australia Department of Agriculture Bulletin 72. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING. 

Two distinct methods of incubating the eggs of the domestic 
fowl are in use on different types of poultry plants, — one, commonly 
called the natural method, in which the hen herself generates the 
heat necessary for incubation, - the other, commonly called arti- 
ficial incubation, in which heat is supplied in some manner other 
than by the hen. In the artificial Avay heat is generated by the 
combustion of some fuel, the hen as a mother being left out of 
consideration entirely. Each of these methods has advantages and 
disadvantages, and each is adapted to certain types of poultry hus- 
bandry. The advantages and disadvantages of each are here given. 

Advantages of Natural Incubation. — (1) It is more economical, 
where a small number of eggs are to be hatched and where first 
cost only is considered. The installation of a medium-sized incu- 
bator costs from fifteen to twenty-five dollars, whereas the same 
number of eggs can be hatched under hens with but little initial 
expense. (2) Chicks brooded by the hen appear to have as much 
or more stamina, and are subject to fewer diseases, than those 
artificially bred; it is doubtful, however, if there is as much differ- 
ence in this respect as is generally supposed. (3) A great many 
progressive poultrymen, hatching relatively large numbers, con- 
tinue to use the hen exclusively, for they consider that .the progeny 
are of superior quality. 

The disadvantages of the natural incubation are numerous, and 
all are well grounded and self-evident. (1) It is not always possible 
to have a supply of sitting hens on hand. If a large hatch is desired 
early in the spring, it is practically impossible to depend with any 
degree of certainty upon the hen, since the natural period of broodi- 
ness does not usually begin until well along in the spring. It 
would have been impossible to develop the broiler industry, as it 
has been developed, by the natural method, for there are few, if 
any, sitting hens on the average plant during the fall and winter. 
(2) There is invariably the danger and liability of the hens leaving 
the nest at any time they see fit. They may, as far as outward 
appearances go, be exceptionally good sitters when selected, and 
may sit on the eggs for a time; but the period of broodiness may 
312 



DISADVANTAGES OF THE ARTIFICIAL METHOD 313 

cease, and, if the exact temper of the sitters is not carefully noted, 
great loss of eggs and tirn-e may result from their fickleness. This 
is even more true of the light nervous breeds than it is of the heavier 
meat producers and general-purpose fowls. The hen is never abso- 
lutely under man's control; she has a will of her own; hence, the 
poultryman at best cannot be certain of definite results until after 
the hatch. (3) If the hen used is of nervous temperament and large 
size, she is apt to crush the eggs or chicks under her feet. Some 
hens have a greater tendency to break eggs than others; this is due 
largely to their clumsiness in the nest, and is especially true of the 
large meat breeds, which have such a mass of feathers on their 
shanks that they are clumsy in getting about. (4) Even under 
ideal conditions the hen can hatch only a limited number of chicks 
at each sitting. When a large hatch is desired there must be a 
great many sitters, and it may be practically impossible to secure 
them; moreover, the limited results obtained do not compensate 
for the necessary care and handling. 

Advantages of the Artificial Method. — Much may be said of 
the merits of artificial incubation. It may be briefly summed up 
in the statement that, with good eggs from good stock in an incu- 
bator properly and intelligently managed, equally good or better 
results can be realized than with natural incubation. (1) The 
chief advantage of artificial incubation lies in the fact that it can 
be absolutely regulated by man. Eggs may be hatched at any 
season of the year if it is possible to secure fertile eggs for that 
purpose, — whether it be for broilers, in the fall and winter; for 
early pullets, in January and February; or for future layers, in 
March and April. (2) By an intelligent use of the incubator, the 
poultryman can so regulate the temperature, moisture, and venti- 
lation as to secure those uniform conditions during the hatch 
which insure uniform results. (3) The element of chance is prac- 
tically eliminated, and, with care and attention, approximately 
the same results can be secured in continuous hatches and during 
successive years. (4) The incubator is cheaper in the long run. 
Taking a period of five years, and considering the initial expense 
and labor, it is much cheaper to hatch a given number of eggs in 
an incubator than under hens. 

Disadvantages of the Artificial Method. — The disadvantages, 
if any, of this method are largely due to brooding. (1) It is, how- 
ever, doubtful whether the percentage of fertile eggs hatched in 
the incubator will year after year run quite as high as when under 



314 NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 

the hen. This will depend largely upon the intelligence and experi- 
ence of the man caring for the hatch. (2) Artificially brooded 
chicks need more attention than those brooded by the hen. The 
hen as a mother is left out of consideration, and the poultryman 
must use his judgment in supplying conditions which will be the 
best adapted to the growth and development of the chicks. (3) 
All things considered, artificially brooded chicks are more liable 
to disease; or, it might better be said that, owing to the large 
number handled, they do not get the individual attention which 
they do in natural brooding, hence the chick with low vitality 
succumbs to infection much more readily. (4) The percentage 
of loss is usually greater; but, with more accurate knowledge of 
brooding requirements and good care, this loss while brooding 
should be reduced greatly. 

Summary. — If one wants early chicks in considerable quantity 
and has the time for their proper handling and brooding, he should 
get an incubator. On the other hand, where only a few chicks are 
wanted, or the poultryman has only limited time to give them, the 
old hen is the best. 

Artificial methods rarely pay if one has less than fifty hens, 
except in those cases in which it is desirable to hatch the whole 
yield of eggs for breeding or broiler purposes. 

On an egg farm for laying breeds exclusively, an incubator is 
a necessary part of the equipment, — much more so than where 
general utility breeds are raised. 

Broodiness. — Natural incubation is dependent upon a normal 
instinct which fowls possess in greater or less degree, and which 
is called "broodiness." It is an entirely natural phenomenon, 
dependent upon the physical instinct of all animals to reproduce 
their kind, but it has been demonstrated that this instinct gradu- 
ally diminishes, where the tendency is continually to breed for 
heavy egg production. The natural period of broodiness follows 
the laying of a certain number of eggs ; this number depends almost 
wholly upon the hen, and varies greatly. Sometimes hens that 
have been persistent layers will become broody immediately after 
laying from six to ten eggs; others will lay from two to four dozen. 
The egg breeds rarely ever develop this characteristic to any 
marked degree. It is called a breed characteristic, and is especially 
marked in the heavy breeds, less so in the lighter ones. 

The natural period of broodiness is in the spring, after the 
birds have laid their 'first clutch of eggs. In northern climates 



WHERE TO SET THE HEN 315 

this is usually in April. Several signs will enable one to pick out 
the broody hen. The first thing noted is her persistent sitting 
upon the nest after laying. The non-broody hen will leave imme- 
diately after laying and is easily disturbed when she is laying, 
while the reverse is true of the broody hen. Other distinctive signs 
are the looseness of the feathers on the breast, and the viciousness 
with which the sitting hen will attack the poultryman when he 
attempts to remove her from the nest or to search for eggs. There 
is also a tendency to ruffle up the feathers, and when on the nest 
to sit close with wings outspread. Another characteristic is the 
increased body heat, which can be felt by placing the hand under 
the breast. This is a natural phenomenon brought about by an 
increased flow of blood into that part during this period. The best 
time to pick out a broody hen is in the late afternoon, since birds 
rarely lay their eggs later than two or three o'clock in the after- 
noon, and after this time all hens on the nest show more or less 
broodiness. 

When to Set the Hen. — When hens are used for incubation, 
the time at which they can be most safely depended upon is during 
the natural hatching season in the spring. Any birds with a well- 
developed broody tendency, and of a breed which can be depended 
upon, can be safely used for hatching. At this time the percentage 
of loss due to fickleness and other causes will be reduced to the 
minimum. 

Where to Set the Hen. — There are two methods of arranging 
nests for natural hatching, and a choice will depend almost wholly 
upon the breeds to be used and the number of eggs to be hatched. 
One can use either a large, specially constructed house for sitting 
or a small coop of suitable type. The large sitting houses are 
adapted to natural hatching when carried on extensively. Usually 
these are large rooms in houses of simple construction. Have them 
water-tight and free from wind, but well ventilated. One of the 
best types is the shed-roof structure, with the entire front closed 
only with wire. The inside of the house is equipped with tier 
upon tier of large, roomy nests for the hens. Hens are allowed, 
at regular intervals, to get down on the ground to scratch and eat. 
This method reduces labor to a minimum, and enables one man 
to take care of a great many sitting hens. 

The second method, or the use of special shelters, is merely 
the placing of such coops in a secluded place; preferably in the 
lee of a windbreak, in any place protected by buildings, or on the 



316 



NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 



south side of a stone wall if available. High ground should be 
selected, so that during long periods of wet weather the water 
will not collect in or about the shelters. If possible they should 
be placed near the residence, so that they can be carefully watched. 
Materials used for such Shelters. — As a matter of fact, a great 
variety of materials are used in the construction of individual 
coops. Small A-shaped (Fig. 151) or shed-roof coops represent 
the best types, since they are easy to construct and answer all 
the purposes. Barrels placed on the side may be used, and tight 
boxes or berry crates are often satisfactory if a piece of water- 
proof paper is placed over the top. The protection necessary 




Fig. 151. — Two common types of sitting coops. 

depends upon the season of the year when the hatch is to take place. 
Protect the nest both from rain water and soil moisture, and make 
it so that it can be closed at night. 

The following points should be considered in constructing a 
special sitting house of the large type: (1) It should be proof 
against rats and skunks, — that is, made so that the front of the 
coop can be covered at night with small-mesh wire to keep animals 
from entering. (2) It should be free from large cracks or crevices 
and have a smooth inside finish, because of damage from mites. 
(3) It is a great advantage to have a false bottom in each nest. 

The small coops can be used with or without such bottom, 
but it is most useful when the chicks are very young, or early in 
the spring when the ground is wet. Moreover, by having the 
bottom movable it is much easier to cleanse the inside. The coop 
should be built with the idea of using it for a brooding coop after 
the hatch, and it should be so planned as to confine the hen yet 
give the chicks freedom. This can be done by putting slats over 
the front of the coop, sufficiently far apart to allow passage of the 



SELECTING THE HEN 317 

chicks and yet confine the hen. Such coops should be constructed 
of light material so that they can be easily carried from place to 
place, and should be made at very low cost. 

Rules for Making a Good Nest. — The main requisite of a good 
nest is a depression in the centre, so that there can be no danger 
of the eggs being shoved out and rolled into the corners. This is 
important, for many eggs may easily be lost in this way. Where 
the nest is built directly upon the ground, the best plan is to hollow 
or scoop out the centre, banking up the loose dirt around the edges, 
and covering the ;floor with nesting material. Where, however, 
the nest is built on a wooden or portable floor, it is well to put in 
two or three inches of dirt, scooping this out in the same way, 
then place the nesting material upon it. When a barrel is used or 
any box with a large flat bottom, the nest should be partially 
formed from other matter before putting in the nesting material. 
In the case of the barrel, a brick at front and back will help to 
shape the nest, and confine it to one place. The hollow in the 
nest should be large enough to accommodate all the eggs to be 
hatched; a good rule is to make it at least a foot in diameter at 
the top and sloping toward the bottom, where it should be from 
two to three inches in depth. Soil in the bottom will help to form 
and preserve the shape of the nest, and it maintains a certain 
degree of atmospheric moisture, which is desirable. 

Nesting Material. — Many materials are excellent for finishing 
a nest; the best, however, is straw or hay, cut in about six-inch 
lengths. If extremely long and coarse uncut straw is used, it will 
be hard to shape the nest, and the eggs will very likely be caught 
in it or roll under the large wisps so that it will be impossible for 
the hen properly to care for them. Leaves may be used to good 
advantage; but, whatever the material, there must be no grain, 
as the birds are apt to destroy the nest in picking at the grain. 
Shavings are suitable for laying nests, but objectionable for hatch- 
ing nests, because they are loose, the eggs often become buried in 
them, and they do not retain as high a degree of heat as is needed. 

Selecting the Hen. — In selecting a hen for hatching purposes 
the following considerations should be borne in mind, for reasons 
stated: (1) Her size is important, that is, her ability to cover the 
desired number of eggs completely. The small hen can cover only 
a few, and there is danger, that those near the edge will not be 
kept warm enough. The larger the hen the better, other things 
being equal. (2) Be sure that the hen selected has the broody 



318 NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 

inclination well developed. This can be ascertained by watching 
her before making the selection. (See p. 314). (3) The temper 
of the bird should be observed. While some viciousness is desirable, 
since it is an indication of broodiness and reveals the maternal 
instinct to brood and protect, yet hens with this characteristic 
highly developed do not all make good sitters, for in their attempts 
to fight they are apt to break or crack the eggs. Those of a nervous, 
flighty disposition should not be selected. (4) The next considera- 
tion should be that of health and general condition. No bird 
should be selected that does not show plenty of fat, or which does 
not indicate by a bright red comb and bright eyes that she is in 
good vigor Any hen with a tendency to disease, especially diar- 
rhoea, should be discarded. The brooding period is at best a 
heavy strain on the bird, and she needs a vigorous constitution at 
the beginning in order to perform her function. It is poor policy 
to use a hen more than once the same season. (5) The age of the 
bird is also to be considered. Pullets do not make as good sitters 
as yearlings or two-year-old hens, and when possible the latter 
should be used. (6) Where selection can be made from one or 
more breeds, it is wise to make the first choice from a strain known 
to possess the broody instinct in a high degree. For example, it 
is known that in the general-purpose breeds this instinct is highly 
developed, and of all this group the Rhode Island Reds are con- 
ceded to exhibit it in the most extreme degree. 

Process of Setting the Hen. — It is best to take the bird from 
the laying nest at night, as it can then be done more conveniently 
and there is less danger of frightening her. At night the hen takes 
more naturally to new surroundings. Having selected the bird, 
she should be thoroughly dusted with a good lice powder, working 
it well into the plumage, especially under the wings, breast, and 
body. Previous to setting the hen, the nest should be shaped and 
the eggs placed in it. It is well to set her on false or china eggs 
for a day or two in order to test her and see how she takes to new 
conditions; this often prevents broken eggs and ruined nests. By 
this method, too, the hen herself will, in great measure, shape the 
nest, and one need not be so careful in making the nest previous 
to setting her. She should be placed on the nest very cautiously, 
letting her feel the eggs underneath before releasing her. For a 
few days it is best to confine her in the nest, so that there will be 
no danger of her forsaking it. 

Number of Eggs. — The number of eggs to be placed under a 



CARE OF THE SITTING HEN 319 

hen varies according to the size of the hen, size of the eggs, and 
the season of the year. Birds of medium size will cover from nine 
to twelve eggs with very little difficulty, while larger birds will 
cover twelve to eighteen. It is safest to put in the nest one or two 
less than the hen can conveniently cover rather than too many. If 
there are too many eggs, some are liable to be broken or injured, 
for their position in the nest will be changed continually, and all 
will receive a lessened degree of heat. Under ordinary conditions 
the average hen will cover fifteen eggs without inconvenience. 
With larger eggs, such as duck eggs, not so many can be placed in 
the same nest, eight to ten duck eggs under one hen being about 
the right number, while five goose eggs and six turkey eggs can 
be covered by a single hen. During warm weather more eggs can 
be placed in a nest than during cold weather, so that in the winter 
it is well to reduce the above numbers by one or two to insure the 
most abundant hatch. 

Care of the Sitting Hen. — In the care of the sitting hen system 
is worth more than all other points combined; for, in the absence 
of this, the birds may become mixed, the eggs disarranged, the 
hatching time of the different nests forgotten or confounded, and 
certain loss will be the result. In the management of sitting hens, 
it is a safe rule to keep them all confined except when they are let 
out for feed and water. This will obviate any danger of their 
becoming mixed. They should be provided with feed and water 
at a regular time each day, for this teaches them to expect it at 
such time, and they will immediately come off the nest to eat and 
soon return ; therefore less time is consumed in feeding them satis- 
factorily. The nests should be numbered in rotation. It is a good 
plan to set hens on the same day each week, as this will bring all 
the testing and hatching on certain days, thereby precluding the 
embarrassment of not knowing when this work ought to be done. 
Since natural incubation is essentially a matter of detail, most 
careful and thoughtful attention should be given to it. 

Feed for the Sitting Hen. — The main feed of the hen should 
be whole or cracked grain, which may be fed either on the floor 
in the vicinity of the nest or, better, in self-feeding hoppers. A 
constant supply should be kept before them, corn being an im- 
portant constituent of the ration. No wet feed, such as wet mashes, 
should be given, for it tends to produce looseness of the bowels, 
which is detrimental. 

Fresh water should be provided in a clean vessel. During 



320 NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 

exceptionally hot weather in the summer or late spring, it is well 
to leave an open pan or low bucket on the ground, so that, when 
the birds desire, they can immerse their plumage in the water. 

Cleanliness in the sitting coop or nest is of paramount import- 
ance, since it means the prevention of vermin, improved health 
of the hen, and more ideal conditions for the chicks. Three points 
should be here considered : (1) The droppings should be frequently 
removed, as well as any cracked shells or extremely dirty litter. 
This can best be done when the birds are off the nest to eat. (2) 
An abundance of dust should be provided in a box within easy 
access of the nest, so that the sitting hens can dust themselves, 
which is just as essential to them as a bath is to human beings, 
and it also helps to keep away body lice and mites. (3) The neces- 
sity of dusting the hen with a good insect powder once or twice 
during the incubation period. The most convenient times are on 
the seventh and fourteenth days when the eggs are tested. 

Testing the Eggs. — In order to determine the fertility of the 
eggs and the development of the embryo, which is the gauge of 
the efficiency of the hatch, it is advisable to candle eggs at least 
once, and probably twice, during the hatch. This process is 
described in the following chapter (p. 343) . 

Take out all which will not hatch, thus enabling the hen to 
better cover the remaining eggs. Or, when fertility is rather low 
and two or more hens are sitting, take the fertile eggs from one 
hen and put them under others. If the eggs are tested twice dur- 
ing the hatch, the most convenient times will be on the seventh 
and fourteenth days. In natural incubation it may be best to 
test but once, since testing has a tendency to disturb the hen 
more than some consider advisable. 

Importance of Keeping Sitting Records. — In natural incuba- 
tion, records should be kept of each sitting hen, in order to ascer- 
tain just how the hatches are running and to perfect the method. 
Such records should state the number of the nest, the breed of the 
hen, the date when set, the variety or kind of eggs, the day of first 
test, and the number of fertile, infertile, and dead germs, also the 
date of second test, giving the number of fertile and dead germs. 
The percentage of hatch, or the number of live chicks taken from 
the nest, should also be stated. This record may be kept on cards 
in a rack above the nest or in a book. Such a record will show the 
keeper when his hens are due to hatch, when fertility is running 
low, and perhaps enable him to make a pedigree hatch. 



PERIOD OF INCUBATION 



321 



Period of Incubation. — The hen's 
egg requires approximately twenty- 
one days for incubation. This pe- 
riod, however, varies considerably in 
eggs from different breeds; for in- 
stance, the white-shelled eggs of the 
Leghorns, under uniform conditions, 
will pip and a great many hatch on 
the twentieth day, while under 
the same circumstances the Brahma 
eggs will take at least twenty-two 
days. This is probably due to quick- 
er development of the germ of the 
Leghorns and to the fact that the 
eggshell is thinner. The periods of 
incubation required for other birds 
are: Ducks, twenty-eight days; 
swans, from thirty-two to thirty- 
five, usually thirty-five days; geese, 
thirty to thirty-five days; turkeys, 
peafowls, and guineas, twenty-eight 
days. These are the average natu- 
ral incubation periods; in artificial 
incubation the time varies some- 
what. They may also be affected 
by the degree of heat which the 
broody hen develops. The closer 
she sits and the greater heat she 
generates, the shorter will be the 
incubation period. Chicks which 
hatch much in advance of the nor- 
mal period or exceedingly late are 
of no value, for this indicates low 
vitality. The best chicks are those 
which are hatched at a uniform time, 
the great majority breaking the shell 
on or about the times mentioned. 
A severe chilling of the eggs during 
incubation will often kill the embryo, 
or at least retard the hatch from 
twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 
21 



10 



n 



12 



13 



14 



Fig. 152. — Manner of toe punching 
for baby chicks, showing sixteen com- 
binations, making it possible to identify 
sixteen different matings. 



322 NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 

Care at Hatching Time. — As hatching time approaches the 
hen sits very close to the nest, and often refuses to come off to 
eat. This is natural, as a high temperature is now necessary. She 
should be kept in the nest, for many hens at this time become 
nervous, and try to leave it after a few chicks are hatched. The 
nest should be so prepared that the chicks, as they hatch, cannot 
get away from the hen and fall out of it. It is well to feel under 
the hen occasionally, and remove any shells or weak and crushed 
chicks, but normal chicks should not be taken away from the hen 
until they are twenty-four to thirty-six hours old, or until the hen 
of her own will takes the flock out in search of feed. 

Causes of a Poor Hatch. — The causes of a poor hatch with the 
natural method when known can easily be guarded against. They 
are: (1) Poor sitters; (2) poor eggs; (3) the presence of vermin; 
(4) improper management. These are all equally important, and 
a successful hatch depends upon attention to all, from the fact 
that neglect of any one means almost certain failure. 

Marking Chicks.- — It is often desirable to keep a record of the 
new chicks; it may be merely for the time of hatching or more 
detailed information as to parent stock. To mark the chicks per- 
manently and without injury, the poultryman uses one of two 
methods, toe punching and leg banding. The system of toe punch- 
ing allows of sixteen different numbers. These are shown in figure 
152. If the marks are carefully made, this method will answer 
very well. It is more quickly done than leg banding and does not 




Fig. 153. — A good, yet simple, leg band for chicks. 

necessitate much clerical work ; but, if not properly done, toe mark- 
ings are apt to be grown over or the web to be torn. With leg bands 
(Fig. 153) accurate and full records must be kept, which means 
considerable expense in time and material; but, where superiority 
through breeding is desired, this money and time are well spent. 

NATURAL BROODING. 

In the rearing of chicks with the hen, one of the first essentials 
is a suitable brooder coop, which should be designed as follows: 
It should be light and portable. It must allow the chicks to have 



CARE OF THE YOUNG CHICKS 323 

free range, if desired, but should confine the hen. It should pro- 
vide ample shelter for both hen and chicks during wet weather. 
In the construction of such coops, 1x2 inch strips and plaster 
laths make an excellent yard for the hen and chicks to exercise in, 
and shelter and sleeping coop can be built at one end. The brooder 
coop should be located in a spot sheltered from the wind, where 
there is plenty of green grass and some protection from enemies. 
The floor should be elevated, and covered to quite a depth with 
sand, to keep it dry and to facilitate cleaning. The hen and chicks 
should be transferred to the brooder coop about sixty hours after 
the hatch, or when the chicks have dried off and are ready to leave 
the nest in search of feed. In making the transfer it is best to 
carry the hen under the arm and the chicks in a basket or other 
handy receptacle, the chicks being put in the coop first, and the 
hen gently placed in after them. By this procedure there is less 
danger of the hen trampling on her chicks. 

Care of the Young Chicks. — The chicks should be kept close 
to the hen for a few days, until they get accustomed to the coop 
and know where to run for protection. It should also be made 
certain that they are securely fastened in the coop with the hen 
at night, also that they are under shelter in the coop in spells of 
rainy weather during the first few weeks after hatching. 

Feeding the Young Chicks. — It is important that the chicks be 
given feed which is easily digested. The belief that feed should 
be withheld from chicks naturally hatched, with the idea that the 
newly absorbed yolk will nourish them for a considerable length 
of time, is a mistaken one. In artificial brooding this question 
of feeding must be considered, but it is of no practical importance 
in natural brooding, because the hen will see to the feeding. As 
soon as they have been put in the brooder coop, give the hen a 
good feed of whole corn and place water where she and the chicks 
can drink it, then throw a little rolled oats on the sand. This is 
probably the best feed for young chicks, because, owing to its 
light color, it attracts their attention and they can see to eat it. 
Bread crumbs soaked in milk make an excellent first feed for 
naturally hatched chicks, as do hard-boiled eggs, to which use 
infertile eggs can be put. The general practice, however, and it 
is a good one, is to start the chicks on fine cracked corn or wheat. 
For the first few days only a limited amount of the grain should 
be given, but after they have learned to eat they should be fed 
two or three times a day with good feed which they can clean up 



324 



NATURAL INCUBATION AND BROODING 



in a short time. Where skim-milk is available, it is well to give 
the chicks all of it they wish to drink. Unless they have access 
to green grass (Fig. 154) in the runs, a little chopped lettuce or 
other green feed should be furnished. In the absence of any fine 
sand or gravel on the floor of the coop, chick grit should be supplied. 
After the first few weeks the ration can be gradually simplified 
and made less expensive. Cracked corn or wheat should serve as 
its basis, in addition to which the chicks should be given animal 
and green feed, also grit. The feeding of young stock naturally 
hatched is a much more simple proposition than the feeding of 
artificially hatched chicks in the brooder; for, in the first case, the 
hen sees to their welfare to a great extent. (For principles and 

methods of chick feeding see 
Chapter XXI.) 

Chick Ration. — A good ra- 
tion for the first week for chicks 
brooded by the hen contains 
equal parts of cracked corn, 
crushed wheat, and oatmeal. 

Put the feed where the hen 
cannot reach it, she being given 
three times daily a grain ration 
of equal parts of corn and 
wheat. During the second and 
succeeding weeks gradually 
eliminate the oatmeal, and as 
the chicks grow larger substi- 
tute whole wheat for the crushed. After the first week begin to 
give them dry mash similar to that used in artificial brooding. 

Parasites. — One great evil to which naturally hatched chicks 
are prone is the presence of lice, notably head lice, which if in 
great numbers sap the vitality, weaken the constitution, and stunt 
the growth. The best means of ridding chicks of lice is to grease 
the head with lard or carbolized vaseline; this will not only drive 
the lice away, but tend to keep others from coming. Unless the 
parent is kept well dusted, chicks are also infested at an early age 
by body lice, and, for this reason, it is well to dust the hen at 
regular intervals of about two weeks until the chicks are weaned. 
Weaning and Separation of Sexes. — As soon as the chicks are 
old enough to look out for themselves, the hen should be removed, 
for two reasons : Because if put back in the pen she will soon begin 




Fig. 154. — An average-sized flock by nat- 
ural incubation. (Photo by Kellerstrass Farm, 
Kansas City.) 



REVIEW 325 

to lay, and because the chicks grow faster after the hen is removed. 
The age at which the hen should be allowed to wean her chicks 
depends upon the weather and season, — usually from four to six 
weeks is the average. 

At about ten weeks, or as soon as sex can be distinguished, the 
sexes should be separated if maximum growth is to be realized. 

REVIEW. 

1. What terms are used to define the two methods of incubation? 

2. Enumerate disadvantages of natural incubation. 

3. Discuss artificial incubation. 

4. Mention three points which will aid one in determining which system to 

follow. 

5. Describe the broody hen. 

6. When is the best time to set the hen? 

7. Name and describe two methods of setting hens in large numbers. 

8. Give the desirable features in individual sitting coops. 

9. How would you make a good nest, and what material could be used? 

10. Enumerate five points which should be considered when selecting the 

sitting hen. 

11. Describe the procedure in setting the hen. 

12. How many eggs under one hen? 

13. Describe method of caring for and feeding the sitting hen. 

14. Give three cautions to insure cleanliness in and around the nest. 

15. Is it important to test the eggs? Why? 

16. What factors should be recorded in sitting records? 

17. Name the periods of incubation for different species of birds. 

18. What special attention is required at hatching time? 

19. Give four causes of poor hatches. 

20. Describe two methods of marking newly hatched chicks; why used? 

21. Describe a good brooding coop for hen and chicks. 

22. Outline the care of the young chicks. 

23. Outline a complete system of feeding baby chicks in natural brooding. 

24. What is the effect of body parasites upon the growing chicks? How 

prevented? 

25. What are the advantages of early weaning? 



CHAPTER XX. 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. 

Artificial incubation and brooding means the hatching and 
rearing of chicks by use of incubators and brooders. The hen's 
heat and maternal instinct are entirely disregarded. 

Historical. — Artificial incubation has been successfully prac- 
tised since prehistoric times. The earliest reliable records are 
found in accounts of Egyptian egg ovens: The eggs were placed 
in large baskets made of reeds, and surrounded by fermenting 
manure which supplied the heat. The method was very crude, 
yet productive of excellent results. This artificial hatching was 
carried on by different families, generation after generation, and 
they thus became very expert in manipulating the equipment. 

This simple method was superseded by the use of ovens, re- 
mains of which have recently been found in Egypt, where the prac- 
tice of hatching eggs in large ovens has lately been revived. These 
ovens have capacities ranging from one thousand to three hundred 
thousand eggs in a season. As a rule, they are centrally located 
in some large village in an agricultural district. The eggs are 
purchased by the manager of the oven, and the chicks sold when 
hatched. Such eggs can usually be purchased for $2.50 to 
$3.00 per thousand, and the resulting chicks sold for $1.00 per 
hundred. These large hatching plants are marvels of simplicity. 
They consist of a large, low building constructed of clay, through 
the centre of which runs a long alley, and opening out of this are 
small, circular compartments with two floors, the second being 
about four feet above the first. The eggs are placed on straw, the 
heat being generated by burning fuel set on an elevated ledge 
around the sides of each room, the amount of fuel used regulating 
the heat. There is an aperture in each room which carries off the 
smoke and surplus heat. In the centre of each compartment is 
an opening where the operator stands when turning and handling 
the eggs. As they hatch the chicks are removed to the central 
alley, which is somewhat cooler, and kept there until sold. 

Early historical records show that artificial incubation was 
carried on in China in ovens similar to the above. The appliances 
were very crude, and success depended almost entirely upon the 
326 



INCUBATOR HOUSES AND CELLARS 327 

judgment, skill, and close attention of the operator. The next 
development of the artificial method was in France during the 
fifteenth century, but little actual progress was made. In the 
latter part of the eighteenth century water was first used as a 
means of supplying heat to the eggs, all preceding work having 
been done by heated air. 

In 1845 a self-regulating valve was invented, which regulated 
the temperature or reduced it when too high. This device opened 
the way and made possible the modern self-regulating incubator. 
The following year, in an attempt to imitate the natural method, 
a special apparatus was constructed to supply heat from above. 
There was no noticeable advance from this time until the last 
quarter of the nineteenth century when, owing to the increasing 
demand for poultry, largely because of increased population, much 
construction work was done in this country and abroad, resulting 
in many new and superior types of incubators. 

To Charles Cyphers belongs much of the credit for developing 
in America the commercial artificial incubator. While he was not 
by any means the first experimenter in this line, yet he accom- 
plished much, and made improvements which soon reduced the 
process to a practical science, and enabled any one of limited 
means to own and successfully to operate an incubator. Since 
1870 many improvements have been worked out, with the result 
that different models have been put on the market. Many of 
these are good structures of desirable type, but many, too, are 
faulty in design and poorly built, therefore cannot be expected 
to work successfully. The aim has been to construct an incubator 
which would be operated by any one, in any place, with the least 
possible care and oversight, and in great measure this has been 
accomplished. Yet in many important ways the incubator must 
be improved in order to make it as efficient as the hen. 

Incubator Houses and Cellars. — The successful operation of 
any incubator depends largely upon the place in which it is located, 
and the rapidity and ease with which the operator can secure and 
hold the desired temperature. Therefore, the design, construction, 
and location of the building or room in which the incubators are 
to be placed must be carefully considered. The requirements of 
the incubator room are briefly stated as follows: (1) Even tem- 
perature, (2) plenty of ventilation, (3) abundance of moisture. 

It must be possible to maintain in the incubator room approxi- 
mately an even temperature of any desired degree. Variation 



328 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 



within certain limits is permissible, but sudden fluctuations beyond 

this limit will preclude the maintenance of an even temperature 

within the machine. 

The room should be so constructed that it can be thoroughly 

and frequently ventilated, for fresh air is essential to the growing 

embryo, and good ventilation 
will carry off the fumes from 
the lamps. 

Arrangements should also 
be made to materially increase 
the moisture in the atmosphere 
when desired, since it has been 
proved conclusively that moist 
atmosphere is essential in incu- 
bation. 

Design. — These require- 




Conerr** 4'- If ' FtniA 



--fS — .i- 




S'O- -• 3'4" » II' 1" -» 3'9" lr-S'3- ■ 

Fig. 155. — Working plans for incubator cellar. 



ments are best met by a house built partly below the ground 
(Fig. 155). The machines are then placed low, as this makes them 
less susceptible to changes of weather, — the room will be cooler in 
summer and warmer in winter. Two courses are open: Either to 
put up an incubator room in some permanent building, or to con- 
struct a low one-story house specially for the purpose. The latter 
is the usual plan, and, all points considered, is undoubtedly the 
best. Where a room is fitted up in a building designed for other 
purposes, there is always danger of fire, and the rate of insurance 
is higher. Besides, unless the structure is exceedingly well built, 
the eggs are liable to be injured by shock or jarring from above. 



INCUBATOR HOUSES AND CELLARS 



329 



A building put up expressly for incubation purposes need not 
be very expensive; but a few requirements must be provided 
(Fig. 156, A, B, C, D). The floor should be from four to five feet 
below the level of the ground, and the ceiling from eight to ten- 
feet high, giving about five feet below ground and five feet above. 
Double walls, especially above the ground, are essential, as they 
aid materially in keeping the temperature uniform. The subgrade, 
or wall below the ground, is best constructed of poured concrete 





Fig. 156. — Four views showing construction of hollow-tile incubator cellar. A, Forms 
ready for pouring concrete foundation wall; B, forms removed; C, hollow-tile construction 
and manner of framing roof; D, completed cellar. 



or stone (Fig. 81), while the side wall above ground can be made 
of lumber, — 2 x 4 inch studding, sheathed inside and out. Or 
it can be constructed of hollow tile, which has proved satisfactory, 
as it is almost a non-conductor of heat. Such a tile, well stuccoed 
inside and out, is economical, durable, easily built, not susceptible 
to temperature and moisture variations, and can be quickly and 
easily cleaned. 

The building should have a loft overhead, to insure uniformity 
of temperature. For this purpose, a two-pitch or gable roof is 
best, and it is advisable to put in heavy ceiling rafters and a solid 
board floor, so that the loft can be used for storage purposes. 

Ventilation. — It is unnecessary to install an expensive ventilat- 



330 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

ing system m trie incubator cellar. The best plan is to cut in the 
wall single-sash windows, three by three feet, one for every thou- 
sand cubic feet of air space. These windows should be double, 
the outer sash hinged at the top, to be raised upward and outward, 
the inner sash hinged at the bottom and opening inward and down- 
ward. Neither sash should be open more than about 45 degrees, 
which will permit the air to circulate freely through the cellar, 
but not to blow directly upon the machines. A direct draught 
over them, especially during the high winds of early spring, is apt 
to make the lamps smoke, or to blow them out entirely. The use 
of double sash creates an air chamber which helps to keep the 
temperature and humidity even. It is well to have a vestibule 
with double swinging doors at the entrance of the building or 
cellar, to cut off drafts of outside air. 

Interior. — A specially constructed incubator cellar should be 
plastered with cement, and have a concrete floor, raised a little 
in the centre so as to carry the water off* to either side. This per- 
mits the thorough wetting of the floor, and also helps to maintain 
the right degree of humidity. A part of the incubator cellar should 
be partitioned off into a small room which can be easily darkened 
and used for testing. Here shelves should be built at a convenient 
height for holding testing lamps and 'egg traps, and a long table 
may be placed in the centre of the room for turning and cooling; 
the necessity of this depends somewhat upon the type of the 
incubator, for some are so constructed that the trays may be 
placed on top. It is desirable to have a shelf covered with tin or 
asbestos, preferably the former, for filling and trimming lamps, 
and over this other shelves for the storage of extra lamps, wicks, 
and other supplies. The safest way to handle the oil is to bring 
it in from the storage tank through a feed pipe, which does away 
with the necessity of carrying small oil cans around, and perhaps 
saturating parts with oil. There should be a closet or shelf for 
thermometers, hygrometers, and incubator records. Running 
water should be piped into the building, and a faucet conveniently 
located with hose attachment for sprinkling. 

The cost of such a building is an item, and it is best to figure 
this out from the capacity in dozens of eggs. Of course, the cost 
of a building specially designed will be greater than if a room is 
fitted up in a building meant for other purposes, but the advantages 
of the former will counterbalance the cost. An estimate, per 
dozen-egg capacity, will vary considerably, according to its type 



TYPES OF INCUBATORS 



331 



and the size and style of the incubators. An economical cellar 
using many small machines in single tiers can be constructed for 
about SI. 00 per dozen eggs, possibly less — even as low as fifty 
cents per dozen eggs. 

Location. — One of the best locations for an incubator building 
or cellar is on a side hill. Setting the building on the slope does 
away with one-half of the excavating, and at the same time per- 
mits an entrance on the same grade as the cellar floor. This fur- 
nishes a good outlet for air, and obviates the necessity of coming 
up and down stairs upon entering or leaving the cellar. 

The building should be near the dwelling or the keeper's quar- 
ters, since it needs attention early in the morning and late at night. 
If within easy access of the brooder house, it will minimize labor 
when removing the 
chicks, and also lessen 
the danger of chilling 
them. 

Types of Incubators. 
— There are two general 
types of incubators, the 
distinction being based 
on the manner in which 
heat is supplied to the 
eggs. The problem in 
artificial incubation is 
to maintain a steady 
temperature of approx- 
imately 103° F. and care- 
fully to regulate the atmospheric moisture. In the various makes 
of incubators heat is imparted to the eggs in two ways, — directly by 
hot air from a kerosene lamp (Fig. 157) ; and by air heated by com- 
ing into contact with a hot-water tank over a kerosene lamp. 

A brief comparison of these two methods may be made. With 
a hot-air machine an even temperature can be kept up. Since 
the air is heated directly by the lamp, any increase or reduction 
of the flame is immediately felt in the egg chamber; whereas with 
a hot-water machine the heat from the lamp must be imparted 
to the water, thence to the air in the incubator, and this consumes 
more time. With hot-air machines there is no copper or tin tank 
to be kept filled with water, hence no danger of this corroding 
and leaking in the middle of a hatch, the water soaking the machine 




Fig. 157. — A common type of hot-air incubator. 
The incubator is given a "sun bath" before the next 
hatch. 



332 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 



and spoiling the eggs. A strongly built copper tank, with proper 
care, should last many years, but a thin copper or tin tank can- 
not be expected to last longer than two or three seasons. Sedi- 
ment soon forms in the bottom of the tank, especially if hard 
water be used. The tank is hard to clean, and this sediment 
accumulates in different parts of the circuit and causes uneven radi- 
ation, with variation in the temperature of the different parts of the 
machine. Hot-water machines will hold the heat longer than the 
hot-air type ; they have the advantage that when, for any reason, 
the lamp goes out in the night, there is less danger of an incubator 
cooling down to a dangerous degree before it is discovered. 




Fig. 158. — Modern mammoth incubators. A, Phantom view showing arrangement 
of pipes and circulation of water; B, another make of incubator with brooders below. (Pho- 
tos, A, Hall Mammoth Incubator Co.; B, Candee Incubator Co.) 

The hot-air incubators seem to be the most popular, no doubt 
because they require less attention, are cheaper, less complicated, 
and less liable to get out of repair. There are a number of excellent 
hot-water incubators on the market, but, all things considered, 
the hot-air type is the safest and best. 

Incubators, according to their size and type, are also classified 
as individual, or small, and mammoth incubators. The small 
ones are composed of single compartments for the eggs, with 
capacities of fifty to five hundred, each unit being a separate 
machine heated by its own lamp. The mammoth incubator con- 
sists of multiple units — a number of egg chambers — the entire 
machine having a capacity of from two thousand to fifteen or 
twenty thousand eggs, heat being generated in a central heating 
plant or boiler, and conveyed to all the compartments by means 
of hot-water pipes extending above the egg trays (Fig. 158). 



TYPES OF INCUBATORS 



333 



The type selected will depend largely upon the number of eggs 
to be hatched, the mammoth incubator being best adapted to large 
poultry plants, or community centres where there is a demand for 
custom-hatched and day-old chicks. It is being used to some 
extent on large broiler plants, and more and more in commercial 
hatching; but its popularity is only of recent origin. In custom 
hatching a compartment or a number of compartments are rented 
at so much per hatch, the person who hires the compartment 
supplying the eggs and taking the chicks, and the operator fur- 
nishing the heat and doing the work connected with running the 




r .;- \ . ,r . " zm ~ ~~~zrzj*/ ■? ■■■■■.-...^ 



A Thermostat E • 

■B Xever weight, to balance 

C Connecting rod and thumb nut 

■D Zener arm 

■E £eanp damper which controls the 

heat entering etnd leaving: 

the heater flue. 



Fig. 159. — A complete self-regulating device for incubators heated by lamps. 

machine. The chief advantages of this are its large capacity and 
small cost for labor and fuel. 

Profitable hatching by artificial incubation depends upon 
securing a good incubator in a good location. Some of the points 
to consider in selecting an incubator are: 

The machine should be best adapted in size to the conditions, 
— the mammoth incubator where thousands of chicks are to be 
hatched within a short time, the individual lamp machine for 
much smaller numbers on small poultry plants or farms. 

The simplicity of the machine should always be taken into 
account. The more mechanism there is, the greater the danger 
of mistakes in management; the more parts there are to get 
out of order and work poorly, the less satisfactory the machine 
will be. 

Since the effectiveness of the machine depends in great measure 
upon the maintenance of a uniform temperature of desired degree, 
the regulating apparatus should be carefully examined (Fig. 159). 
This apparatus should combine four requisites: (a) A sensitive 
well-built thermostat; (6) a simple but certain method of trans- 



334 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

mitting the action of the thermostat to the lamp ; (c) arrangements 
for easy adjustment or regulation; (d) mechanism that will not 
get out of order with use. 

It is well to look into the mechanical construction of the 
machine if great and permanent efficiency is to be expected. A 
good incubator should be built of well-seasoned, kiln-dry lumber, 
and well put together, so that it will not swell or warp, or the joints 
come apart when subjected to heat, or rack and come apart when 
moved. It should be substantial, both in appearance and detailed 
construction. 

It should be of plain design, well finished, with several coats 
of varnish, making it as nearly waterproof as possible, so that 
the great humidity often present will not affect the wood. 

The past record of the machine should be investigated, — not 
only the advertisements, but also the practical results attained 
by those who have owned and used one. The reputation which a 
machine has made is usually its best recommendation and the 
safest one to rely upon. 

The machine bought should be of not less than one hundred 
eggs capacity or, better still, two or three hundred, since a small 
machine requires as much time and labor to operate it, and nearly 
as much fuel ; it is also harder to keep it at a uniform temperature, 
because, owing to its small size, it is more easily influenced by 
changes in weather. In most cases the poultryman intends to 
increase the amount of hatching at some future time; the larger 
machine can be run at one-half capacity the first year or two, if 
desired, and the number of eggs increased when necessary without 
extra investment. 

Summary. — It is well to emphasize the fact that an incubator 
should never be placed in a damp, dark, musty cellar in a dwelling 
house, for proper conditions cannot be maintained nor can it 
be well ventilated. Nor should it be put in an upstairs room in a 
dwelling house, owing to the great variations in temperature day 
and night, and the certain increase in insurance rates. 

The room selected should be well ventilated, free from drafts, 
and of an even temperature day and night. The air should con- 
tain a moderate amount of moisture, and it should be possible to 
increase this humidity if desirable. The machine should be so 
set as to eliminate all danger of fire; the lamp box should be at 
least four or five feet from any combustible material, such as a 
wooden partition. It should be shielded from the direct rays of 



CARE OF THE LAMP 335 

the sun, for this would materially raise the temperature in the 
machine if permitted for any length of time. 

The best place is a cellar constructed primarily for the running 
of an incubator, the requirements having been thoroughly under- 
stood by the designer and builder. 

Care of the Incubator. — The incubator should be kept in per- 
fect order, not only during the time of year when it is being op- 
erated, but when idle as well. It should be carefully inspected 
and overhauled before each period of operating. A few days before 
putting in the eggs, the machine should be started, to test its 
accuracy and see that it is properly adjusted, also that the lamp 
and wick are in good condition, and to dry out the moisture. If 
it has been allowed to stand in a damp cellar, it should be worked 
until the excess moisture has been so dried out that the doors and 
ventilators will open easily. This preparation of the machine is 
essential in order to prevent trouble in the future ; it is also impor- 
tant from the standpoint of the amateur, for, by operating it for 
a few days or a week, one becomes familiar with its workings. 

As a rule, the instructions sent out with the incubator should 
be carefully studied, and the machine operated accordingly, at 
least until a better method is evolved. The manufacturer should 
best understand his apparatus, and is the person most interested 
in getting the best results from that particular machine. Caring 
for the incubator is a matter of routine; a plan should be marked 
out and closely adhered to. 

Care of the Lamp. — Since the lamp is the source of the heat, 
which is the vital requirement, its workings must be thoroughly 
understood. The following suggestions may be useful: 

1. Trim and fill the lamp at a regular time every day; if this 
is done regularly, it will not be overlooked or forgotten. It should 
never be trimmed or filled just before turning the eggs, because, 
if the hands are oily when handling the eggs, the oil has a tendency 
to fill up the pores and check evaporation and the free passage of air. 

2. Be sure that the lamp is set firmly and properly in the frame 
or standard, and that the burner and chimney flue fit evenly, thus 
preventing danger from smoke and possible fire. If the lamp is 
improperly placed in the machine, it will flicker badly, and may 
give less heat than is required. 

3. Do not fill the lamp too full. Leave a little space at the 
top for air and for the movement of the oil. If too full it will 
flicker and may go out entirely. 



336 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

4. To trim the lamp, take it from the machine and lower the 
wick to prevent smoking. Do not cut the wick with scissors 
except once in three or four days, then most of the charred por- 
tion can be cut off. Each time the lamp is filled, scrape off the 
charred portion of wick with a small piece of wood or match. 
This is best accomplished by turning the wick high enough to 
bring the charred portion above the wick guard, then the charred 
end can be quickly scraped off. When the flame has a tendency 
to point upward at either end, forming a crescent, clip the corners 
slightly; or, if it points up in the middle, trim the centre a little 
lower. The wick guard often becomes bent, and either wider or 
narrower in places, which makes the wick burn unevenly. This 
can be remedied by straightening it. Have a uniform even flame 
with curved top, the centre being a trifle higher than either end. 

5. After filling, any oil on the lamp should be wiped off with 
a cloth. Keep it as clean as possible, and so prevent odor and 
danger of fire. 

6. After lighting the lamp, put it in the machine and turn it 
low for about five minutes, after which the wick may be raised 
as high as desirable. If turned high at once, the flame may flare 
up, and the lamp smoke. 

7. Leave the flame so low that there can be no danger of smoke. 
The wick should be large enough to furnish the necessary heat 
without having to burn at a dangerous height. This should be 
borne in mind when selecting the machine. 

8. In regulating the temperature, the best method is to keep 
the lamp wick always at the same height, and regulate it with the 
thumbscrew. An exception to this rule, however, may be made 
on or about the nineteenth day, when, owing to the large amount 
of heat given off by the mature embryo, it may be desirable to 
turn the lamp wick down slightly. 

9. Be sure to place the lamp so that no draft can blow directly 
upon it, as this will make the light flicker or smoke, if it does not 
go out entirely. 

10. The burner box should be kept clean, free from dust, and 
the glass openings as clear as possible. Watch to see that they are 
not broken or removed, in which case the force of the air will 
make the lamp burn poorly. 

Filling the Egg Chamber. — The following points should be 
borne in mind: (1) Avoid subjecting the eggs to a too sudden 
change of temperature by bringing them immediately from a 



THE TEMPERATURE 337 

cool room of perhaps 45° or 50° to one with a temperature 
of 100° to 103°. Allow the eggs to warm up for a short time 
in the incubator room before placing them in the incubator. (2) 
It is a good plan to set the eggs on end, large end up, for six 
to twelve hours previous to putting them into the incubator. 
This allows the air cell to adjust itself, and the yolk to float 
in normal position. (3) When placed in the tray, the eggs should 
completely cover it, but not be piled one upon another. The 
temperature varies approximately one degree for every inch of 
height, and it would be impossible to subject all the eggs to 
a uniform temperature. The process of turning, too, would be 
more laborious, with greater danger of cracking the eggs. (4) 
When it is desirable, for any reason, to keep a record of the 
ancestry of the progeny, pedigree egg trays must be used, except 
where a small number of eggs are so hatched; in such cases, it 
may be possible to put eggs from hens of different color in the 
same compartment, although this practice is not always conducive 
to the best results in hatching. Pedigree egg trays are composed 
of small compartments in which eggs of different hens or different 
breeds- may be incubated, the chicks when hatched being plainly 
marked for future identification. 

Source of Heat. — Keep up the degree of heat best suited to 
develop and hatch vigorous chicks; in natural incubation this heat 
is generated by the mother hen. To accomplish it artificially, oil, 
coal, gas, and electricity are commonly used. The kind of fuel 
used is immaterial, so long as it is adapted to the machine used. 
The small or individual incubator is usually heated by oil. A very 
good method is to have the machine piped for illuminating gas, 
a round burner being used; this provides a uniform degree of heat 
with a minimum amount of labor. Electricity is sometimes used 
in the individual machine, but not commonly. Coal is used almost 
entirely in the mammoth machines. 

The temperature of eggs during incubation is approximately 103° 
F., or from two to three degrees lower than the body temperature 
of the hen. The temperature of eggs under hens has been found 
to vary from 101° to 104°, the average being approximately 103". 
■There are two methods of testing the temperature of the incu- 
bator; one is by placing the bulb of the thermometer in contact 
with an egg, and the other is to take the temperature of the air 
above the eggs. The former permits a possible error from the 
fact that the bulb of the thermometer may rest upon an infertile 
22 



338 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

egg or one containing a dead germ, and such eggs have less warmth. 
When the temperature of the air is taken, the results will be much 
more uniform. When recording temperature by the latter method, 
take it on a level with the eggs by placing the thermometer in the 
egg tray, or just above the eggs by suspending a thermometer 
from the top of the egg chamber. The latter method seems to 
be the better, because the thermometer is always in place and 
does not need to be removed when the eggs are turned, it is easy 
to read, and, if hung in the centre, it will record the average tem- 
perature of the entire machine. If thermometers are placed in 
the egg tray during hatching time, they are constantly liable to 
be tipped over or turned around, so that it is impossible correctly 
to read the temperature. 

A thermometer suspended with its bulb about one inch above 
the eggs should register one degree higher than when on a level 
with the eggs. 

The following temperatures are desirable during the incubation 
period, if a suspended thermometer be used above the eggs. The 
first week 101° to 103°, preferably 103°. This should be maintained 
as uniformly as possible until the last few days of the hatch, when 
it is advisable to increase it to 103.5°, but not over 104°. If the 
temperature of the room is considerably below 60°, it will be wise 
to run the temperature higher than given, as this is for a room of 
60° or above. Never let the temperature go above 106°; if it 
registers so high, it is well to cool the eggs down to 100°. A high 
temperature during the first part of the hatch is more apt to be 
fatal than after the twelfth day, when a temperature of even 
110°, if not prolonged, may not prove disastrous. If, at any 
time immediately after filling the lamp or adjusting the machine, 
the temperature is found to be 100° to 101°, it is not alarming, 
since the eggs require considerable time to warm up after cooling. 

It is best to read temperatures morning and night before at- 
tending to the machine. Do not try to force the temperature up, 
for it has a tendency to rise rather than fall, unless the room is 
very, cool. On the contrary, if the temperature goes up to 104° 
or above, the thermostat or regulator must be adjusted. 

There are in the market a good many automatic devices de- 
signed to notify the attendant when the temperature is abnormal, 
but they are of little practical value. The incubator should have 
one operator, who will look after it and be responsible for it, until 
the hatch is completed. 



TURNING 339 

Turning. — The turning of eggs during artificial incubation is 
a process designed to duplicate the motion which the hen gives to 
the eggs in natural hatching. The effect of the turning is to 
change the position of the germ; for, owing to the high tempera- 
ture, the albumin has a tendency to break up, the yolk rising 
higher and higher, allowing the germ to come in contact with 
the shell. Turning is also necessary to supply oxygen to the grow- 
ing embryo, for the germ absorbs oxygen from the albumin, and 
the albumin in turn gets oxygen from the air cell or through the 
shell of the egg. If the egg is not turned, especially during the 
later stages, the embryo will not be of the right shape or in the 
right position in the egg, and therefore is unable to hatch. 

The following is a comprehensive rule for turning. Begin turn- 
ing on the evening of the third day, continue this process each 
day, morning and evening, until the evening of the eighteenth 
or nineteenth day, or until the eggs show signs of pipping. Then 
prepare the machine for hatching, and do not remove the tray 
for any purpose.. 

Several methods are recommended for turning, and a number 
of appliances come with different machines. The most common 
of these is the turning frame, the eggs being placed between the 
slots, the theory being that when this frame is moved back and 
forth the eggs are rolled about. As a matter of fact, however, 
many of the eggs, especially if of different sizes, are found to be 
in the same position, and the small ones are apt to be cracked. 
The best method, undoubtedly, is that of hand turning, which 
consists in placing the palm of the hands on some of the eggs from 
the centre, and moving them about the tray, trying, so far as 
possible, to put them into a different position. If the hands are 
pressed firmly on the eggs, this method promotes uniformity, and 
very few, if any, eggs are cracked or broken. It is unnecessary to 
mark the eggs and turn them halfway over each time; this re- 
quires extreme care, and the amount of time and labor expended 
is not productive of any better results. If the incubator is of the 
double-tray type, the trays should be shifted before replacing them 
after turning, and the ends reversed twice daily, thus counteract- 
ing any variation in temperature in the different parts of the 
machine (Fig. 160). 

Cooling takes place during the process of turning, the object 
again being to imitate nature. It not only allows the egg to cool 
off, but at the same time permits it to secure a greater amount of 



340 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 



oxygen than would be possible in the machine itself. The length 
of time for cooling depends upon the temperature of the room 
and the season of the year, and also upon the ventilation of the 
machine. It is impossible to lay down definite rules; but it is safe 
to begin cooling on the fifth day, and cool from four to five minutes 
in a room heated to about 60°. Do not let them cool any longer 
than the time required for turning, in a room which is much cooler 
than this. After the fifth day, the time for cooling should be 
gradually increased, until, during warm weather and in the latter 




Fig. 160. — Interior view of incubator cellar. Operator turning and cooling eggs, 
is used on the floor to increase moisture in the incubators. 



Water 



part of the hatch, the eggs may be cooled from fifteen to twenty 
minutes with very good results. The exact degree and process 
of cooling are more or less disputed points, experiments proving 
that environment varies so much that no positive rule can be laid 
down. It is evident that the eggs are considerably cooled during 
turning, and that the machine also cools off somewhat while the 
eggs are being taken out and replaced. Stop the cooling at the 
same time that the turning is stopped, or about the eighteenth or 
nineteenth day. 

Ventilation is essential, in order that the gas generated by the 
egg may be thrown off and replaced by a supply of fresh air and 



VENTILATION 341 

oxygen. The problem is, how to supply fresh air without too 
great a loss of moisture from the egg, due to evaporation. Evap- 
oration of the fluid in the egg is influenced by the rapidity with 
which the air circulates through the egg chamber, and by the 
humidity of the air itself; hence the factors of ventilation and 
moisture are closely related. 

There are three methods of ventilating the smaller or individual 
incubator. The first, and most efficient, is by the introduction of 
fresh air into the machine, the intake being at the lamp box and 
the pure air heated as it enters the machine. The second is by 
the use of small ventilators controlled by sliding valves which lead 
directly to the inside of the machine through the wall. The third 
is ventilation through the bottom of the incubator, the bottom 
being provided with openings or slits, and, in some cases, so con- 
structed that it can be let down. In some machines these three 
modes are combined, while in others only one or at the most two 
are used. Whatever the system used, there should be an abundance 
of fresh air passing slowly through the chamber, and this can be 
regulated by muslin or burlap curtains to cut off any draft. 

Evaporation and Moisture. — The real gauge of the ventilation 
is the evaporation which takes place within the egg in a given 
time; hence, one of the best means of ascertaining the exact rela- 
tion between ventilation and moisture is a study of this evapora- 
tion. It can be determined by testing or candling the eggs, and 
noting the increased size of the air cell. For instance, when the 
egg is first put into the machine the air cell is very small, being 
only about one-eighth of an inch in depth. Under normal con- 
ditions it will have increased on the third day to about one- 
quarter of an inch in depth, on the eighth day to about three- 
eighths, on the fifteenth day to about five-eighths, and on the 
nineteenth day to about three-quarters. This is caused by air 
penetrating the shell and taking the place formerly occupied by 
the evaporated liquids. 

The evaporation which takes place in the normal egg during 
incubation has been determined as follows: One hundred eggs 
of average size will lose during the first five days of incubation 
8.28 ounces, during the next seven days 12.05 ounces, and 
during the next seven days 12.044 ounces. This shows the high 
degree of loss, and the loss becomes still greater as the hatch 
progresses. 

Many experiments have been conducted to determine the de- 



342 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

sirability of retarding evaporation in artificial incubation by in- 
creasing the humidity of the air in the egg chamber, yet at the same 
time permitting free ventilation. 

Experiments have been conducted involving one thousand 
eggs set in eight machines, four with low and four with high 
humidity, the average in the dry machines being 56 degrees, and 
in the wet 68 degrees. The results showed that increased moisture 
was desirable, and that there was much less loss in weight during 
the incubating period. The average loss of weight for the wet 
machines was 0.145 pound, and for the dry 0.23 pound, being nearly 
double in the case of the dry machines. 

This same experiment also proved that increasing the moisture 
within certain limits produced the following results: (1) It in- 
creased the percentage of hatch, which was 62.0 per cent for the 
dry and 69.6 per cent for the wet. (2) The resulting chicks 
weighed much more at hatching time and were more vigorous, being 
0.079 for the dry and 0.081 for the wet, there being five cripples 
in the dry machines against one in the wet. (3) Produced greater 
uniformity in the hatch, both from the standpoint of lapse of 
time from pipping to complete hatching, as well as uniformity in 
the chicks themselves. (4) The chicks from the moisture machines 
were much more successfully brooded, the percentage being 52.3 
for the dry against 89.5 for the wet. 

The retardation of evaporation is an important matter. The 
extent to which it should be carried depends on atmospheric con- 
ditions surrounding the egg and in the incubator room. Evapora- 
tion may be checked by increasing the humidity in any of the 
following ways : By frequent sprinkling of the floor and walls with 
water; by placing under the egg trays moisture pans, usually filled 
with sand which is kept wet ; by putting a sponge or other material 
saturated with water in the machine; by sprinkling the eggs at 
frequent intervals with warm water; or by limiting the ventilation 
by partially closing the ventilators. 

As a matter of fact, it is doubtful whether the humidity can 
be kept too high. Humidity is ascertained by an instrument 
called a hygrometer. The degree of moisture is computed by 
comparing the readings from two thermometers, the bulb of one 
being wrapped in a moist wick or cloth, while the other is dry. 
The lower reading of the wet bulb is due to evaporation, hence 
the difference between the two readings. The amount of evapora- 
tion depends upon the humidity in the air. It is impossible to 



TESTING 



343 



keep the wick of a wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer in good condition 
in the . incubator, because the high temperature will quickly dry 
it out and make frequent changes of the wick necessary. For 
practical purposes, the spiral or horse-hair hygrometer is much 
more satisfactory. To the inexperienced operator, however, the 
increasing size of the air cell will be the safest guide. 

Testing. — To determine the fertility of the eggs, as well as to 
study the developing embryos and thus ascertain whether the 
machine is running properly, it is advisable to test or candle the eggs 
once or, better, twice during 
the hatch, preferably on the 
seventh and fourteenth days. 
The egg tray should be re- 
moved to a dark testing room, 
and the light for testing pro- 
vided either by a kerosene lamp 
or an acetylene or electric light 
placed in a small tight box 
with circular opening about 
one inch in diameter. Electric 
light is the best, the light from 
a kerosene lamp not being 
powerful enough to penetrate 
the shell of the egg (Fig. 161). 

The egg tray should be 
placed on the right-hand side 
of the lamp box, the person 
standing in front, with a du- 
plicate empty tray at his Jeft 
hand in which to put the eggs 

as tested. The testing lamp should be so placed that the open- 
ing is about six inches above the waist line and one foot in 
front of the operator. The untested eggs should be taken two 
or three at a time from the full tray, and transferred one at a 
time to the other hand, grasping them between the thumb and 
forefinger with the large or air cell end outward. As the eggs are 
moved, they are brought one at a time in front of the opening, 
and given a gentle rotary motion. This will move the contents, and 
the light penetrating the shell will reveal the presence or absence 
of the germ, and its condition. The chief points to be determined 
in the seventh day's test are the size and location of the air cell, 




Fig. 161. — A useful, home-made egg tester. 
Electric light is used. Two holes allow the 
testing of two eggs at once. 



344 



ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 



the infertility of the eggs, dead germs, germs apparently sticking 
to the shell, and cracked eggs (Fig. 162). 

The size of the air cell, as previously stated, will vary with 
the period of incubation and the amount of ventilation; if it appears 
too large or too small, steps to correct this should be immediately 
taken. If the air cell is too large, the moisture in the air must be 
increased to lessen evaporation, and if too small, evaporation 
must be promoted by increasing ventilation. Air cells not prop- 
erly located at the larger end of the egg are due either to the fact 
that the eggs were kept too long in one position before being put 
in the machine, or to improper turning prior to the seventh day. 






162. — Eggs seven days in the incubator as seen when tested, 
living germ; C, infertile egg. 



A, Dead germ; B, 



An egg which appears to be absolutely clear or translucent 
without a dark spot with converging lines is infertile. All such 
eggs should be plainly marked and put in a separate place. These 
can be profitably used for chick feeding, by boiling them hard 
and feeding them separately or mixed with mashes. White- 
shelled eggs, if tested out on the fourth or fifth day, may be safely 
used for baking purposes. The normal egg at this time will have 
a clearly defined air cell; the germ will be noted about one -third 
of the way from the large end, looking like two dark spots lying 
close together, one a trifle larger and darker than the other; radiat- 
ing from the germ will be seen numerous dark lines, crossing and 
recrossing, which are the veins of the embryo. If the germ is not 
readily detected, it can be brought to the surface by rotating the 
egg slightly. At this time an infertile egg, especially in a strong 
light, will show a slight dark area in the centre, which is yolk. 



ATTENTION DURING HATCHING 345 

Eggs showing a bright-red line fixed to the shell in the form of a 
semicircle, with the germ in the centre, contain dead embryos. 
A dark-red spot seen against the shell is undoubtedly a germ which 
died from want of turning. A hazy air cell and small faint germ 
indicate weakness and lack of vitality, and the chances are that 
the egg will not be hatched. 

When the testing is finished, eggs which have passed inspection 
should be immediately returned to the machine. When making 
the test the usual turning and cooling are unnecessary, as the eggs 
get enough of both during the process. On the fourteenth day 
the same routine is followed; this time, however, the object is 
merely to determine the increased size of the air cell and its re- 
quirement of moisture, as well as to remove any eggs in which 
the germ has died during the intervening time. Normal eggs will 
now show a rather large air cell, with a clear-cut and distinct 
dividing line, the remainder of the egg being extremely but uni- 
formly dark in color. By rotating it slowly the outline of the 
embryo chick, greatly increased in size, can be seen. Any which 
at this time show no sign of vitality, but a haziness around the 
air cell with a clear area near the edges, should be discarded, as 
they undoubtedly are dead or will not hatch into vigorous chicks. 
All eggs which denote dead or weak germs should be marked, placed 
in a separate tray, and subsequently buried, as they are now unfit 
for eating. During extremely cold weather, to prevent chilling, the 
eggs should not be left out any longer than is necessary. 

Records. — The running of an incubator is a matter of detail, 
and the study of past records will enable one to determine the best 
method to pursue under given conditions, and the incubation 
possibilities of a given flock. Hence, it is advisable to keep an 
accurate account of all the operations connected with each hatch, 
but the method should be so simple and convenient as to reduce 
the clerical work to a minimum. Such a history will not only 
establieh the record of one particular incubator, but will acquaint 
the poultryman with the conditions in his breeding pen as regards 
the fertility and hatching power of eggs. Such a record sheet 
can be tacked to a light, smooth board suspended in front of or 
under the incubator. (See Chapter XXVI.) 

Attention During Hatching. — From the time the machine is 
closed, when the first egg is seen to pip, it should be absolutely 
undisturbed, so that the right degree of temperature — approxi- 
mately 103.5° to 104° — may be maintained. Before closing it, 



346 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

the sand tray or other device for moisture should be removed, and 
the nursery tray placed in proper position. The wire in front of 
the egg trays should be opened, and the tray placed with this 
opening in front, so that, when the chicks are attracted to the 
front by the light, they will fall down into the nursery. In most 
machines it is well to cover the glass with a cloth or burlap during 
the hatching. This keeps the chicks more contented and prevents 
crowding, and when the burlap or cloth is removed they are 
stronger and better able to protect themselves. 

If the hatch has been properly conducted, it should start about 
the nineteenth or twentieth day after the eggs were placed in the 
machine, and all chicks which are to hatch will probably be out 
at the beginning of the twenty-first or twenty-second day. This, 
however, will vary somewhat with the temperature at which the 
machine has been operated and with the character or type of eggs 
set. The higher the temperature the earlier the hatch will start; 
large brown-shelled eggs from the heavy breeds require from one- 
half day to a day longer than the thinner-shelled eggs from the 
lighter breeds. The one important thing at this time is that the 
hatch should be uniform and complete soon after the first pipping. 

A prolonged hatch is rarely a successful one. If a hatch does 
not turn out properly, it is well for the operator to look over the 
records and see if he is at fault. The chicks should be left in the 
machine from twenty-four to thirty-six hours after all are hatched. 
As soon as the hatch is complete, the egg tray should be removed, 
and a little fine grit and oatmeal be thrown into the nursery; this 
will stimulate the digestive system of the chicks and teach them 
to pick up feed. It is rarely of any use to remove from the shell 
chicks which are incapable of getting out themselves. 

Poor hatches may be due to various causes, such as poor eggs, 
faulty condition of the breeding stock, or want of care previous 
to putting in incubator. Given good eggs at the start, disappoint- 
ment is most often the result of inexperience and poor management 
of the machine, especially shown by irregularity in attendance 
and imperfect regulation of the ventilation and humidity. To 
operate an incubator successfully the attendant must make up his 
mind to put considerable thought and effort into the work and to 
perform the duties methodically. 

Another factor in low hatching is a poor thermometer. To 
prevent this, the accuracy of the thermometers should be tested 
at the beginning of each season by comparing them with a clinical 



REVIEW 347 

thermometer in warm water. A thermometer one or two degrees 
out of register will ruin a hatch, even if all other conditions are 
favorable. When the correction is not more than two degrees, it 
may be marked on the thermometer and allowance made for the 
error when reading. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is meant by artificial incubation and brooding? 

2. Describe ancient methods of artificial incubation. 

3. Discuss the development of artificial hatching up to the present time. 

4. Discuss three essentials of an efficient incubator cellar. 

5. Discuss in detail incubator cellar design. 

6. Describe the double-sash plan for securing ventilation. 

77 Where is the best location for the incubator cellar? Why? 

8. Compare hot-air and hot-water incubators. 

9. Discuss the possibilities and uses of a mammoth incubator. 

10. What seven points should be considered when selecting an incubator ? 

11. Where is the best place to run an incubator ? Why ? 

12. Why test the machine before filling the egg chamber? 

13. Give nine points to remember in the care of the lamp. 

14. What care should be exercised in filling the egg trays? 

15. What are the proper temperatures at different times for incubation? 

16. Describe two methods of taking the temperature in the incubator. 

17. Give rule and methods for turning the eggs. 

18. Why are the eggs turned? 

19. What factors influence cooling? 

20. Tell of the purpose of ventilation, and give the methods. 

21. Discuss in detail the relation of moisture to a successful hatch. 

22. How is the percentage of moisture determined? 

23. When should the eggs be tested? Give reasons. 

24. Describe an efficient tester, and give method of testing. 

25. Describe the appearance of: (1) An infertile egg, (2) an egg with a dead 

germ, (3) an egg with a growing germ, on the seventh day. 

26. Describe the appearances of eggs with a dead germ and eggs with a live 

germ on the fourteenth day. 

27. What special attention is required during the final hatching? 

28. Give the causes of poor hatches. 

References. — Poultry Experiments, by James Dryden, Utah Bulletin 102. 
Incubation and Incubators, by R. H. Wood, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 236. 
Loss of Weight in Eggs during Incubation, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia 
Bulletin 73. The Fertility and Hatching of Eggs, by Pearl and Surface, 
Maine Bulletin 168. Some Factors Influencing the Vigor of Incubator Chicks, 
by Horace Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 124. Incubation of Chicks, by 
W. R. Graham, Ontario Bulletin 163. Artificial Incubation, by G. Bradshaw, 
New South Wales Farmers' Bulletin 22. Chinese Incubation, by D. G. Brill, 
U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, 1900 Report. Carbon Dioxide under Setting 
Hens, Connecticut Report, 1907. Humidity in Relation to Incubation, by 
W. H. Day, Ontario Bulletin 163. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
ARTIFICIAL BROODING. 

Artificial brooding usually follows artificial incubation, but, 
where only a few hundred chicks have been hatched in a machine, 
they are sometimes brooded under hens, because this necessi- 
tates less attention. Artificially brooded chicks are more subject 
to certain diseases, and if neglected may not make as rapid growth 
as if brooded under hens, while at the same time they need more 
care. The possibilities in artificial brooding, however, are many; 
and, if the type of brooder and methods are good, and the chick's 
requirements as to feed and temperature are understood, just as 
good, if not better, results can be secured as when the hen is 
used. The great advantage of the artificial method is the large 
number of chicks which can be handled. Were it not for the 
development of this branch of poultry keeping, the broiler in- 
dustry as we know it to-day would have been impracticable, and 
on the large intensive egg farms it would have been impossible 
to brood each year the many thousands of chicks required to supply 
future layers. There are many brooder systems and many types 
of brooder houses, all possessing advantages and disadvantages, 
and all adapted to certain conditions. 

Brooder Houses. — In the construction of brooder houses we 
find two general plans. (1) Long brooder houses are permanent. 
They may be from fourteen to twenty feet wide, and from fifty 
to several hundred feet in length (Fig. 163). (2) Colony brooder 
houses are nearly always portable, and contain from fifty to one 
hundred square feet of floor space; some, however, are very small, 
and contain only ten to twelve square feet of floor space. 

In choosing which type or system of brooding to use, three 
things must be considered: (1) The number of chicks to be 
brooded; (2) the season of the year; (3) funds available for per- 
manent equipment of this kind. The intensive brooder equip- 
ment of the long-house type is adapted to broiler raising on a 
large scale, to the production of many hundreds, or perhaps 
thousands, of pullets for laying purposes, or to any poultry farm 
where thousands of chicks are to be brooded to advanced age. 
348 



BROODER HOUSES 



349 




Fig. 163. — Three different types of long brooder houses. .4, Feed house and boiler 
room in centre. The high fences make it possible to keep adult birds in the runs when 
they are not used for chicks. B, Wide "half-monitor" type of roof, allowing a centre walk 
and brooder pens on each side. C, House with gable roof and automatic ventilation. 



350 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

On the small plant, with an average farm flock, raising from 
two hundred to perhaps a thousand chicks, the portable colony 
house, especially the gasoline brooder, is one of the best types 
to select. 

Long brooder houses may be grouped under four heads, accord- 
ing to the methods of brooding. One system has continuous or 
overhead pipes with hover boards above the pipes. Here the 
pipes usually extend along the top of each brooder compartment, 
these being from four to five feet in width. The hover consists 
of light boards hinged at the back, which can be lifted up to 
facilitate cleaning, the hover usually covering the entire end of 
the brooder pen. This was the first system extensively employed, 
but it is becoming obsolete because of better types. The brooder 
compartments are large and permit the handling of many chicks. 
There is not uniformity of temperature nor adequate control of 
it. It is especially adapted for use in the first week, but, owing 
to the great expense involved by having two houses, this type 
has given way to a system adapted to the entire brooding period. 
In this class of brooder house, the pipes are from six to eight 
inches above the brooder floor, the back of the hover compart- 
ments usually being ventilated by apertures covered with muslin. 
In front of the hover board is suspended a slotted burlap or felt 
curtain. 

The second brooding method, which is very popular and 
being more and more generally adopted, has at the back of each 
individual pen a specially constructed compartment with a cir- 
cular portable hover (Fig. 164). Here the heat is conveyed from 
a chamber below the brooder floor, through a galvanized metal 
pipe from four to six inches in diameter, and distributed into 
the hover just below the hover top. In this type of brooder it is 
essential that the hot-air chamber below be entirely isolated, 
so that no heat can escape and provide bottom heat, the objec- 
tion being that it causes weakness of legs and loss of vitality. 
The hot-air chamber is heated by means of hot-water pipes pass- 
ing through it from a central heating plant. The exact arrange- 
ment of the hover compartment itself admits of many variations. 
Some of original models provide excellent advantages; among 
the best being a damper in the metal pipe which makes possible 
the control of each compartment. 

The third method of equipping the long brooder house is 
to install individual brooders, either single or double units. 



BROODER HOUSES 

A 



351 




Fig. 164.-4, Interior of long house with double-pen 'brooders B S 

and us hover. (Courtesy of Hall and CaX CompanS T C ° mPartment 



352 



ARTIFICIAL BROODING 



These units are heated by kerosene lamps (Fig. 165). The 
usual method is to maintain a uniform temperature in the 




Fig. 165. — Portable indoor hovers make it possible to use the laying houses for brooding 
purposes. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) 




Fig. 166. — Small portable outdoor brooders heated by kerosene lamps. 

brooder house by the use of a few coils of hot-water pipe and then 
to increase the hover temperature to any desired degree by the 



BROODER HOUSES 



353 



use of a lamp. If properly carried out, this method will give almost 
ideal brooding conditions, yet the labor involved is so great, as 
compared with the central heating system, that, where a large 
number of chicks are to be cared for, the latter is by far the best. 

The fourth method, practised to only a limited extent, is to 
equip the long brooder house with fireless brooders or hovers, so 
constructed that they conserve the heat given off by the bird 
itself. The troubles are that they are hard to ventilate properly, 
that their use induces a loss of vitality, and that very few birds 
can be grouped in a single flock, — not over twenty-five with 
safety. Fireless brooders have not been, and probably never 
will be, used very extensively. 

Colony brooder houses are of three types, varying in size and 
other respects. Those of extremely small size, often only three 
by five feet, are equipped 
with a portable hover, the 
heat being generated by 
a kerosene lamp. These 
are commonly called port- 
able outdoor brooders (Fig. 
166), and have a capac- 
ity of approximately fifty 
chicks each. They necessi- 
tate considerable labor and 
attendance, are hard to 
clean, and the lamp is in- 
accessible. In the early 
spring, too, it is difficult 
to maintain the required degree of heat, as they are always ex- 
tremely susceptible to outside changes in temperature. These 
brooders are well adapted to the needs of the small poultryman, 
who broods only two or three hundred chicks. 

The second type of colony brooder house is much larger, 
usually six by eight or eight by eight feet at the base, and there 
are various styles of construction. The shed-roof house is com- 
mon (Fig. 167). Such houses are equipped with one or two, 
usually two, portable or adaptable hovers, which are heated 
with kerosene lamps. The lamp may be placed outside or inside 
of the building as seems most desirable. Being of large size, 
these houses will accommodate a considerable number of chicks. 
After the chicks have grown sufficiently, the hovers can* be re- 
23 




Fig. 167. — Colony houses built on runners and 
equipped with hovers heated by kerosene lamps. 
(Photo from Maine Experiment Station.) 



354 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

moved, and the house used as a growing or summer colony house, 
thus one house serves two purposes. These houses are easily 
built, with a four-foot wall at the back and a six-foot wall in front, 
with a shed roof, the front having a muslin curtain extending 
from the top halfway to the ground, on either side of a central door. 

The third type of colony brooder house is represented by 
the " gasoline brooder house " (Fig. 168), consisting of a portable 
A-shaped house with a very low side wall and eight by eight 
feet of floor space. The fuel used is gasoline. The house con- 
tains a large storage tank and a blue-flame gasoline burner which 
permits of continuous operation for from four days to a week 
without refilling the tank, this depending on the season. The 
hover is exceedingly large, and covered with a large hover board. 
This equipment will easily accommodate two hundred chicks. 
It is an exceptionally warm house, and can be used in extremely 
cold weather. It provides for an abundance of ventilation, and 
can be used in warm weather as well as cold. The cost is relatively 
low, the entire equipment, including all lumber, hardware, and 
metal, costing only about thirty-eight dollars. 

This type of brooder can be put to the following uses: (1) 
That of a brooder house for brooding young chicks when they 
are taken from the incubator. (2) The source of heat can be 
removed, and, the house being portable, it can be pulled out into 
a cornfield or orchard, and be used for a summer colony or devel- 
oping house. (3) When desired, it can be used for a small flock of 
laying hens during the winter, accommodating from ten to fif- 
teen birds. Thus it becomes possible to utilize the equipment 
throughout the entire year, and does away with the necessity 
of spending considerable money on a permanent long brooder 
house which would only be used for limited periods. Plans for the 
construction of this house are shown in figure 168 at A. 

Lumber for Gasoline Brooder House. 

Foundation, 2 ps. 2" x 12" x 8'. 

Floor joists, 4 ps. 2" x 4" x 8'. 

Floor (double), 65 sq. ft. ship lap, 1" x 10". 

70 sq. ft. 3" flooring. 
Sides and roof, 250 sq. ft. ship lap, 1" x 10". 
Studding and rafters, 1" x 3" dressed white pine. 
Roofing paper, 300 sq. ft., 120 linear ft. 
Door and hover, 40 sq. ft. 1" x 10" white pine. 
3 cellar sash, hinges, and nails. 



BROODER HOUSES 



355 








II IIIIIHI 




Fig. 16S. — Portable gasoline brooder houses. A, Working plans; B, brooders in actual 

operation. 



356 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

The tank, hover, burner, and other metal parts are made 
especially for this brooder. 

Requirements of a Successful Brooder. — Regardless of the 
type of brooder selected and the method of supplying heat, there 
are at least three, and perhaps four, requirements for the best 
brooding of chicks. (1) A clean, easily accessible, well-ventilated 
hover, partially darkened, to which the chicks may have free 
access at any time to warm up quickly. (2) A well-ventilated, 
lighted, and moderately warm compartment which will provide 
exercise room for the young chicks, also a place for them to stay 
when the brooder run is cool and they do not need the high 
temperature under the hover. (3) A brooder run or pen protected 
from storms, sun, and wind, and enclosed within the brooder house 
itself. (4) An outside yard for use in pleasant weather, providing 
an abundance of range, also a place for growing green feed. 

It will be seen from these requirements that the indoor brooder 
adapted to the intensive brooder house must meet the first two 
requirements, while an outdoor brooder must provide the first 
three. The gasoline brooder offers the first three of these, the 
second being secured by placing a board, temporarily, a little in 
front of the hover, thus confining the chicks in close proximity 
for the first two or three days, after which time the board is re- 
moved and the chicks given the freedom of the entire floor. 

Preparation of the Brooder. — Before the chicks are placed 
in the brooder, put it in the best possible order. It should be 
cleaned thoroughly with a stiff bristle brush; if necessary the 
floor should be scraped with a putty knife to remove any drop- 
pings, and the interior should afterward be thoroughly sprayed 
with a good disinfecting solution (50 per cent carbolic acid or 
zenoleum). After the brooder has been cleaned the floor should 
be covered to a depth of one-quarter of an inch with clean white 
sand, and over this with short-cut alfalfa or fine-cut straw. The 
lamp should be burning for a day before the chicks are put in, 
so as to heat the brooder to an approximate temperature of about 
98° under the hover. It is not advisable to heat the hover com- 
partment to 100° or 105°, as is sometimes recommended, because 
a high temperature tends to lower the vitality of the chicks, — to 
make them much more tender and more easily injured by bad 
methods. 

It is well to inspect the brooder and see that it is in good 
repair, also that the canvas curtains in front of the hover or sur- 



PROPER TEMPERATURE 357 

rounding the same are in order; if not, new ones should be sup- 
plied, canvas being better than felt. Before lighting the lamp 
put in a new wick. After the temperature has been kept at ap- 
proximately 98° for twenty-four hours, the brooder is ready for 
the chicks. 

Transferring the Chicks. — The main point in transferring 
the chicks from the incubator to the brooder is to do this as 
rapidly as possible and with the least chilling. It can best be 
done by taking the chicks from the incubator and placing them 
in a basket, which can be covered with burlap or cotton cloth, if 
the distance they are to be carried is great. Some incubators 
are_ equipped with a nursery drawer which has a cloth cover, 
and this has the advantage of making it unnecessary to handle 
the chicks twice during the transfer. After moving the chicks 
from the incubator, any toe punching or leg banding necessary 
for pedigree breeding should be done quickly. (See Chapter XIX.) 
If the process is lengthy, the chicks should be taken from the 
incubator and placed in another warm machine as they are suc- 
cessively marked. It is not wise to carry many chicks at once, 
as they are apt to be crowded and injured; from fifty to one 
hundred, according to the size of the tray or basket used, is safe. 

Proper Temperature. — The two most important factors in 
the management of the brooder are temperature and feed. The 
following temperatures are recommended. Start the brooder at 
98° to 100° under the hover; during the second week run it at from 
94° to 96°, the third week from 90° to 92°, during the fourth at 
about 85°. Experiments conducted at the New Jersey Station 
demonstrate that an exceedingly high temperature continued for 
many days will lower the vitality of the brood and cause a heavy 
mortality. Any extreme variation of temperature, especially if 
rapidly^produced, will cause a heavy death rate. Deaths usually 
occur at the time of or immediately after extreme variations, 
either up or down. Variations in the brooder temperature, 
especially during the first two weeks, are responsible for much 
of the mortality in artificial brooding. The figures given were 
found to represent the most desirable hover temperature. It is 
a good rule to keep the hover just warm enough so that the chicks- 
will spread out over the floor and not crowd. On the other hand, 
the temperature should never be high enough to cause panting. 
With Leghorn chicks it is unwise to run the hover at low average 
or to lower the temperature too suddenly, for the young chicks 



358 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

will try to keep warm by crowding, and much loss results, — chiefly 
from suffocation and a general condition of weakness due to low- 
ered vitality. 

The question of sunlight is important. It is not well to allow 
direct sun rays to strike the brooder floor, because all the chicks 
will attempt to get into this one spot, and will thus be drawn 
away from the hover heat and will injure one another by crowding 
or be suffocated. Floods of sunlight produce no such conditions, 
so that it should be a point to have either an abundance of sun- 
shine or no direct rays at all. The direct rays of the sun should 
never shine upon the hover, as this causes great variations. 

Feeding Brooder Chicks. — The feeding of the artificially 
brooded chicks is one of the most important factors in poultry 
keeping, and successful nutrition should begin with hatching and 
extend throughout the growing period. The first four weeks are 
the most trying, for this period covers the delicate stage of the 
chick's growth, and is the time when the death rate is greatest and 
when mistaken methods will be shown by poor broods. The fol- 
lowing principles apply to baby-chick feeding, a discussion of 
which will better fix them in the mind of the feeder. The object 
is to economically keep the chicks growing. 

1. Feeding Too Soon. — Just prior to hatching, the yolk is 
drawn into the bird's body, and supplies the growing chick with 
nourishment for a number of hours after hatching. It is unde- 
sirable to tempt or force the chick to eat within a period of from 
forty-eight to sixty hours after hatching. The best practice is 
to supply fresh water and an abundance of fine grit when putting 
chicks in the brooder, withholding all solid feed for at least the 
first twelve hours in the brooder. A good plan is to put the chicks 
in the brooder in the afternoon, and give them their first solid 
feed in the morning. 

2. First Feed Easily Seen and Nutritious. — The young chick 
artificially hatched has to be taught many things which under 
natural conditions it learns from the mother hen; such as search- 
ing for feed, and the elementary process of eating. The natural 
instinct of the chick is to pick up bright things; for this reason, 
feed which is easily seen is desirable. A good practice is to throw 
a limited amount of rolled oats on the floor of the brooder, — only 
what the chicks will eat in an hour or two. Rolled oats are very 
nutritious, are relished by the chicks, and make an excellent 
first feed; but their continued use is not advisable. Hard-boiled 



FEEDING BROODER CHICKS 359 

eggs mixed with bread crumbs may also be used as a first feed 
for young chicks. Drj^ cracked grains are sometimes fed, but 
they are less easily seen. 

3. Grit and Shell. — Grit to enable the digestive organs to 
perform their functions, and shell to supply the lime so essential 
in the formation of bone, should not be omitted. The sand 
placed on the floor of the brooder will help, but will not of itself be 
as effective as two or three handfuls of sharp granite grit and 
fine oyster shell placed in several conspicuous places in the brooder. 

4. Plenty of fresh water is essential, since the chick gains 
weight rapidly, much of this gain being water. Stale or stagnant 
water carries disease germs and is liable to produce digestive 
disorders in the flock. Keep fresh water before them constantly, 
using a small siphon fountain, which can be rinsed out daily to 
keep it from getting slimy. 

5. Dry Cracked Grains vs. Wet Mash. — T>ry cracked grains are 
the best, all things considered, since they supply the elements re- 
quired and in a form which cannot lead to injurious results. When 
the chicks are from six to ten daj^s old, this can be economically 
supplemented with bran and dry mashes. Experiments in com- 
paring cracked grains with wet mash show: (1) That wet-mash 
feeding will increase the weight only slightly more than the feed- 
ing of dry mash or dry cracked grains alone. (2) Besides an in- 
creased weight, a greatly increased mortality was found where 
the wet-mash system was used. (3) This increased mortality as 
the effect of the wet mash is not noticeable to any extent after 
the second week; hence it is apparent that at this time the chick's 
digestive system has developed to such an extent that it may eat 
almost any feed without detriment. The practical application 
of these conclusions is to feed the baby chick throughout the first 
two critical weeks with cracked grains and dry mash, paying 
special attention during this time to health and vigor; after this 
critical period is safely passed, future feeding should be governed 
largely by the purpose in view. For example, if the aim is in- 
creased gain in weight, as for broiler raising, wet mashes can 
safely be fed; whereas, if the maturing of breeding stock is the 
main object, a dry mash supplemented with cracked grains should 
be the choice, if normal development at the lowest possible cost 
is desired. 

6. Wheat bran is an important asset in the feeding of the baby 
chick, since it is easily digested and contains a form of vegetable 



360 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

ash which is very readily assimilated. Wheat bran alone may be 
kept in small hoppers, and will furnish nearly a balanced ration 
for the first few weeks. 

7. Ash Very Essential. — The young chick should not only 
gain flesh, but must also rapidly make bone; and, in order to do 
this, a large amount of ash must be supplied in the form of lime 
and phosphates. A certain amount of this is consumed in the 
form of vegetable juices, but it must also be furnished from a 
mineral and animal source. Shell and limestone grit are the two 
most common mineral sources, and meat scrap and crushed bone 
the two most common animal sources. Experiments show that 
of these products bone is the most efficient, producing greater 
gain in weight more quickly and with lower mortality and less cost. 

8. Feed Little and Often. — Owing to the small size of the 
digestive system of the young chick, and its heavy feed require- 
ments in proportion to its size, it is wise to give only small amounts 
of feed at a time and to feed often. The practice should be to 
feed four or five times a day during the first week, gradually 
diminishing the number of feedings until the end of the second 
week. Cracked grains may be fed three times a day, and dry 
mash kept before them all the time after the second week. 

9. Avoid Sloppy Wet Feed.- — The young chick's digestive 
system is not well adapted to the assimilation of wet mashes, 
even after it is possible to feed them. Moreover, they make it 
impossible to keep the floor of the brooder in a clean, sanitary 
condition, and to prepare and feed them involves a great deal of 
labor, so that their use during the early growing period should 
be discouraged, except in the case of broiler raising. 

10. Animal Protein. — When mixing a ration it is well to use some 
protein from an animal source, experiments showing that the best 
gain in weight follows the feeding of a ration from two to ten per 
cent of which is animal substance, the common sources being meat 
scrap and bone. It is not advisable, however, to feed more than 
about two per cent of this material for the first week, since it is 
rather hard to digest; after that time the amount can be increased 
until, at the end of the fourth week, it reaches about ten per cent. 

11. Keep Chicks Busy and Hungry. — The practice should be 
to feed only what the chicks will eat up quickly, so that at the 
next feeding they are anxious and ready for feed. This prevents 
the loss of feed by its becoming dirty, in which case they will not 
eat it, and also gives them an appetite and a chance to exercise. 



MANY METHODS OF FEEDING 361 

12. Succulent material is just as essential in the baby-chick 
ration as it is in that of the laying hen. It can best be supplied 
in the form of sprouted oats, lettuce, or ground vegetables, such 
as mangels, beets, and turnips. 

13. Feed Early and Late. — It is just as necessary to feed 
extremely early and rather late as it is to feed little and often. 
The time between the feeding at night and the first feeding in 
the morning is at best rather long, and it can be materially short- 
ened by feeding early and late. 

14. Induce Exercise. — In order to keep the chicks in good 
physical condition and growing, give them plenty of exercise. 
This can best be done by covering a considerable area of the 
brooder floor with a thin layer of chaff or fine litter, and after the 
first day or two feed the ground grain in this material. 

15. Clean Feeding. — Health is the one great essential, and 
in order to promote this the feed must be clean. This point is 
important when feeding wet mashes. The mash should not be 
allowed to remain from one period to another, since it will become 
sour. Nothing will upset the digestive system of the chick more 
quickly than sour feed. The litter and sand in the feeding com- 
partment should be kept as free as possible from droppings, and 
should be changed frequently. 

Many methods of feeding are in use, some of which bring 
uniformly good results and are especially recommended. Two 
methods or plans are here outlined. It must be remembered 
that there is no such thing as a best ration to suit all conditions. 

The first eighteen hours in brooder, — grit, shell, and water, 
with short-cut alfalfa on the floor of the brooder. 

The day following, — pinhead oatmeal, three feedings. 

The next five days, — feed the following cracked-grain ration 
on the brooder floor five times daily, giving only what they will 
clean up between feedings : 

Cracked corn 20 lbs. Granulated milk (fine) 10 lbs. 

Fine cracked wheat 25 lbs. Crushed peas 3 lbs. 

Pinhead oatmeal 5 lbs. Fine charcoal 3 lbs. 

Supplemental to this ration, — hard-boiled eggs once a day, 
sprouted oat tops twice daily in small amounts. 

The seventh day, — start feeding wheat bran in small hoppers, 
letting it stand before the chicks two hours, and omit the noon 
grain feeding. 



362 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

The eighth to fourteenth day, — bran constantly in hoppers, 
and cracked grain four times daily. 

The third to eighth week, — keep the following dry-mash con- 
tinually before them and feed grain three times: 10 lbs. bran; 
5 lbs. corn meal; 5 lbs. sifted ground oats; 1 lb. meat scrap, in- 
creased in two weeks to about 2 lbs. 

Another Plan. — The following rations are for feeding chicks 
to be raised as breeders, or as layers, from hatching to maturity: 

First Week. 

1. Equal parts by weight of rolled oats, bread crumbs, chick- 
size grit, and half part chick charcoal. Feed five times a day in 
a tray as much as will be cleaned up in fifteen minutes. 

2. Equal parts wheat bran and sifted beef scrap in a hopper 
before the chicks all the time. 

3. Sour milk or buttermilk to drink, — no water. 

Second Week. 

4. One-half of formula for first week, and half good commercial 
chick feed, mixed and scattered over litter four times a day. 

5. Same as No. 2. 

6. Same as No. 3. 

Third to Sixth Week. 

7. Commercial chick feed that does not contain over twenty 
per cent corn or two parts cracked wheat, two parts pinhead 
oatmeal, one part millet, and one part cracked corn, fed liberally 
once a day, about 4 p.m., in litter three or four inches deep and to 
be thoroughly mixed with litter. 

8. Equal parts bran, wheat middlings, and beef scrap, always 
available and in hopper. 

9. Equal parts sour milk and water. 

10. Beef scrap, grit, oyster shells, and charcoal always avail- 
able in hopper. 

Seventh to Tenth Week. 

11. Equal parts whole wheat, hulled oats, and cracked corn 
in deep litter once a day. 

12. Equal parts of bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, and one- 
half part linseed meal. 

13. Fresh water. 

14. Same as No. 10. 



COMMON CAUSES OF DEATH IX THE BROODER 363 

Eleventh Week to Maturity. 

15. Equal parts whole wheat, oats, and cracked corn always 
available in hopper. 

16. Same as No. 12. 17. Same as No. 13. 18. Same as No. 14. 
Dry-Mash for Chicks. — The following dry-mash is well adapted 

for general feeding of growing chicks during any period, such as 
developing them for laying or breeding purposes or the feeding 
of cockerels which are later to be finished for roasters: 

Wheat bran 50 lbs. Alfalfa 10 lbs. 

Ground oats 10 lbs. Meat scrap 5 lbs. 

Gluten 10 lbs. Bone , 5 lbs. 

Corn meal 10 lbs. 

Total 100 lbs. 

The above ration should be fed dry in self-feeding hoppers, 
and some of it kept before the birds all the time. 

Common Causes of Death in the Brooder. — As was previously 
stated, a high mortality usually accompanies artificial brooding, 
averaging from 5 to 30 per cent. But under proper brooding- 
methods it should be possible to brood, at least on the average, 
80 per cent of vigorous chicks. These are good results. Frequently 
cases of 95 per cent are found. Where a great loss occurs, it is 
usually due to one or more of the following causes: 

Chilling. — If the hover temperature during the first week 
or two drops considerably and stays low for any length of time, 
especially during the night when the birds are under the hover, 
they become chilled, their body heat not sufficing to maintain 
the right degree of temperature, and this results in digestive dis- 
orders and a subsequently heavy death rate. The possibility of 
this occurrence should constantly be guarded against. 

The crowding of young chicks is usually because they are 
chilled, but it may be caused by their huddling together in rays 
of sunlight on the brooder floor, or by putting too many chicks 
in one brooder compartment. The latter is due to inexperience, 
but it results in some of them being insufficiently fed and get- 
ting insufficient exercise. The direct result of crowding is suffo- 
cation, — therefore immediate death, — while the indirect result 
may be a lack of vitality, which will either result in a dwarf chick 
or cause lingering death. 

Overheating.- — If the brooder temperature is allowed to rise 
too high, the chicks, by getting accustomed to this high tern- 



364 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

perature, will be made weak and thus more susceptible to any- 
possible variations in other directions. Owing to this weakness 
they have a desire to stay under the brooder, and this results in 
a loss of vitality and in many deaths. 

Cannibalism. — From lack of sufficient ash in the ration or 
insufficient animal protein, chicks often acquire the habit of 
devouring one another. This trouble is usually started by the 
taste of blood which is gotten when one member of the flock be- 
comes injured in some way, and the others pick at the wound 
until, in many cases, the entire chick is devoured. To avoid this 
any chick with injured parts should be immediately removed. 




• .. 



Fig. 169. — Chicks showing pronounced symptoms of white diarrhoea. 

If flocks have acquired the habit, they should be given the fol- 
lowing feed mixture in pans where all will have an equal chance 
to get at it: Equal parts of meat scrap, dried bone, oyster shell, 
and wheat bran. The feeding of this ration and the removal of 
any injured chick should check the trouble. 

Contagious lYhite Diarrhoea. — This is undoubtedly the great- 
est scourge of the poultryman, being in large measure beyond 
his control and not directly due to mismanagement. There is no 
positive cure known. This disease is called bacteria polorum, is 
highly infectious, and is known to be transmitted to the offspring 
by infected parents, the infection passing through the egg, the 
most critical infection period being the first four days of the 
chick's life. The symptoms are a lack of vitality, small stunted 
body and drooping wings, and a narrow contracted appearance 
viewed from behind (Fig. 169). When a flock is known to be 



SYSTEMS OF HEATING BROODER HOUSES 335 

infected, the best possible procedure is to isolate and slaughter 
the infected adults and thus prevent future outbreaks. Thorough 
disinfection of brooders and incubators will prevent the trans- 
mission of infection through future hatches. The organisms are 
easily destroyed by dilute acids; hence the feeding of sour milk 
to infected flocks for the first few days is advisable. Every 
poultryman hatching chicks should make all possible effort to un- 
derstand and prevent this disease, since it causes much loss. 

Hardening Process. — In order to prepare the chicks for re- 
moval to the range, after the second week, a hardening process 
should be begun. This consists in the gradual lowering of the 
temperature, with the idea of dispensing entirely with artificial 
heat in from three to six weeks, according to the weather. The 
best method is gradually to reduce the artificial heat until it can 
be entirely given up, then raise the hover a little at a time until 
it is safe to remove it and replace it with muslin-covered frames 
hung to the hover wall; these can be raised in front a little more 
each night until the chicks can do without them. It is imprac- 
ticable to take chicks from a warm brooder house and put them 
in a colony house unless they are gradually accustomed to the 
change. The idea should be to get them on the range as early 
as possible. After they are four weeks old, the sooner they are 
out on the ground in a cool atmosphere, and have large, well- 
ventilated quarters with free range and plenty -of green feed, 
the faster they will grow, and the more hardy and vigorous they 
will be at maturity. 

Systems of Heating Brooder Houses. — There are two general 
systems of heating large brooder houses, — namely, hot water and 
steam. Hot water is the more generally used. It maintains a 
more uniform temperature with less variation either way, and 
the heat is retained much longer than by steam. The brooder 
house is a compact building requiring no complicated system of 
piping which would make steam necessary. 

The Heating Plant. — In a long brooder house the boiler 
should be centrally located. It is poor policy to run the brooder 
pipes more than one hundred feet, as the loss of heat is great, 
the pipes become cool, and it is impossible to maintain an even 
temperature in all the hovers. With the hot-water system the 
heater should be located in a pit, in order to provide for the cir- 
culation and return of the cold water. Whatever type be selected, 
the heating plant should be installed by an expert. He must 



366 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

understand the fixtures, the size of the pipes, and the running of 
the boiler to secure the required degree of heat in a given type of 
building. The construction of the building and the amount of 
glass or muslin in front will influence the amount of heat re- 
quired. In a brooder house one hundred feet long the best plan 
is to run two coils of two-inch pipe one on the back wall and one 
on the front, each coil containing two flow pipes and one return, in 
addition to the hover heat. In most conditions this should maintain 
a steady temperature of from 60° to 75° in all kinds of weather. 
In a brooder house in which the hovers are heated from a central 
heating plant, so much wall pipe may not be necessary, since con- 
siderable heat will be given off by the hover pipes themselves. 

Before starting up the fire at the beginning of the brooding 
season, one should make sure that the system is full of water; 
if so, there will be water in the bottom of the glass in the expansion 
tank. If the air valves are not automatic, all of them should be 
left open when water is flowing into the tank, so that the air 
may escape from the pipes and permit them to fill with water. 
Neglect of this precaution, and starting the fire with too little 
water in the system, may burst the boiler. 

A good practice is to start the fire and get it well under way 
before putting any coal on it. The use of coal is recommended, 
since it burns longer, gives a more uniform heat, and does not 
require much attention. To make the fire burn briskly, the pipe 
damper should be open and the upper door closed. When the 
fire is well started and there is a good bed of coals, and the water 
has reached the desired temperature, check the fire by closing 
the pipe damper and the damper in the ash-pit door, and leave 
the upper door ajar — how much ajar can only be learned by 
practice. This depends on the type of boiler, the varying amounts 
of water in the system, and will also be influenced by weather, 
wind, and rain. Never let the water in a hot-water system reach 
a temperature of 212°, for steam will then be formed, the water 
in the system will be greatly reduced, and there is danger of its 
boiling away and leaving the boiler dry. When it approaches 
this degree of temperature, the water should immediately be cooled 
by banking the fire and cutting off all drafts. If steam should 
form in the coils, some of it must be allowed to escape by opening 
the air valves, then let fresh water into the system gradually. 
It is best to have automatic valves. All ashes should be removed 
from the ash pit daily, for if they are allowed to remain they will 



REVIEW 367 

burn out the grate bars, as well as stop the drafts. The glass 
gauge should be examined frequently to ascertain whether there 
is plenty of water in the system. A desirable feature is a float 
valve on the expansion tank which will permit the automatic 
inflow of water when needed. 

A thermometer connected with the heater to register the 
temperature of the water is very desirable, but, if one of these 
instruments is installed, it should be of reliable make, as a good 
deal of dependence is put upon it. All pipes in the brooder house 
which are not actually needed for direct radiation of heat should 
be covered with asbestos to conserve the heat, and all pipes used 
directly for heating should receive a good coat of paint to prevent 
rust. 

REVIEW. 

1. Describe two distinct systems in artificial brooding. 

2. What three factors will aid in determining which type to select? 

3. Discuss types and possibilities of the long brooder-house system. 

4. Describe three types of colony brooders. 

5. Discuss the possibilities of the "gasoline brooder house." 

6. What are the four requirements of a successful brooder? 

7. How would you prepare a brooder for young chicks? 

8. How can the chilling of the chicks in transferring them be prevented? 

9. Discuss proper brooder temperatures for different times. 

10. Enumerate twelve principles of baby-chick feeding. 

11. Why is ash so important? 

12. What is the reason for not feeding soon after hatching? 

13. Outline a desirable method of feeding baby chicks for the first six weeks; 

give rations. 

14. Give five common causes of death of young chicks. 

15. Discuss prevention against the white diarrhoea disease. 

16. What are the dangers at the time the heat is removed? 

17. What points are of special importance in locating and installing a heating 

plant for a long brooder house? 

References. — The Principles of Brooding, by Rice and Rogers, Cornell 
Bulletin 277. A Successful Brooder House, by F. H. Stoneburn, Connecticut 
Bulletin 33. Raising Chickens, by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course 
Bulletin 19. Raising Chicks Artificially, by Horace Atwood, West Virginia 
Bulletin 98. Feeding Experiments with Chickens, by J. Williard Bolte, Rhode 
Island Bulletin 126. Seven Methods of Feeding Young Chickens, by Rice 
and Nixon, Cornell Bulletin 282. The Mortality of Incubator Chicks, by 
G. W. Fields, Rhode Island Bulletin 61. Hatching and Rearing Chickens, 
by W. R. Graham, Ontario Bulletin 163. Skim Milk for Growing Chicks, 
by Plum and Anderson, Indiana Bulletin 76. The Baby Chick, by T. E. 
Quisenberry, Missouri Poultry Station Bulletin 1. Working Plans of N. Y. 
State Brooder House, Cornell Circular 4. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
CARE OF THE GROWING STOCK. 

The direct object in the feeding and care of all chicks, from 
hatching time to maturity, is growth. Uniform development is 
necessary for the laj'ing birds or breeders. When meat produc- 
tion is the object, a rapid gain in flesh is desired to bring about 
a maximum profit in the least time. The discussions in this 
chapter will deal with the growing chick from weaning time to 
maturity. 

Weaning the Chicks. — The best time to wean the chicks, 
whether it be from the mother hen or the brooder, will depend 
on the breed, the season of the year, the location of the colony 
houses, and the degree of protection which can be afforded them. 

Leghorns and other light, active breeds are very susceptible 
to sudden changes early in their development. This is due to 
the strain on the system by excessive feather growth. Greater 
care must be used when changing them. They crowd badly if 
the temperature is too low; a heavy mortality follows. In the 
cold weather of early spring the weaning period must be post- 
poned until the chicks attain a greater age than would be required 
if they were hatched later in the spring and were transferred 
during warmer weather. It is very undesirable to wean the chicks 
during damp weather. 

The colony houses should be located in protected spots, espe- 
cially early in the season, and near to the poultryman's residence. 
For the first few weeks after weaning, the chicks require quite 
close watching, as they have to be protected from sudden showers 
and extreme changes in weather conditions. The coops often 
require special manipulation during cool spells in late spring. If 
it is possible to arrange a portable hover in the centre of the 
colony house the chicks can be weaned much earlier. Such a 
hover may be made two feet square with felt or canvas curtains 
tacked to the edges of the board. Suspend this from the roof 
with cord and pulley, leaving it at first about ten inches from the 
floor. As the chicks develop and become accustomed to the 
changed conditions, the hover 1 can be gradually raised, depending 
upon weather conditions, until they finally require it no longer. 
368 



ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 369 

It can then be stored away for use another year. This practice 
is very satisfactory with early-hatched Leghorn chicks. 

Factors Affecting Growth.- — There are many factors affecting 
the growth and development of chicks. They logically fall under 
one of these heads: (1) Inherited characteristics; (2) environ- 
mental conditions; (3) supply of feed. The last two might be 
combined, but are considered separately because of the impor- 
tance of feeding. 

Inherited characteristics determine the constitutional make-up 
of the individual at birth. The effect of environment is constantly 
acting and controls the development of inherited characteristics. 
The pronounced difference in apparent size and strength of the 
chicks at hatching time is largely due to inheritance, beyond the 
control of the poultryman. The difference in size is very pro- 




Fig. 170. — Growing poultry on free range is the most satisfactory method. Gasoline-heated 
brooders are used on this farm. (Photo by Cornell University.) 

nounced in every hatch. Chicks of the same breed vary greatly 
in size and weight at hatching time, and will not develop uni- 
formly, some feathering early and others late. Some remain 
dwarfed and never make a satisfactory development. Every 
poultry raiser should practise a rigid selection from hatching 
time to maturity, weeding out those lacking inherited vigor and 
strength. Experiments show that such chicks never make profit- 
able layers, sure" breeders, or desirable market poultry, and the 
sooner they can be disposed of the better. The best practice is 
to select at weaning time all that are strong and vigorous, 
placing them on the range in the developing houses. Take all 
that are left and place them in suitable quarters, with restricted 
range, if necessary, and force them for broiler purposes. They 
may not make the best broilers, yet it is the most profitable use 
24 



370 



CARE OF THE GROWING STOCK 



to which they can be put. If they are kept for a longer time, 
they eat a large amount of feed for which no return is realized. 

Select the physically strong chicks, and maintain their high 
vitality throughout the growing period. They are to be matured 
into profitable layers and breeders at the end of the summer. 




Fig. 171. — Rearing chicks under intensive conditions on open range. A, Corn is useful 
to provide shade while the trees are small. B, An orchard of large trees supplies plenty of 
shade. The birds check the ravages of insects. 

The maintenance of their vigor is essentially within the control 
of the poultryman. 

Environmental conditions can be conveniently grouped for dis- 
cussion under five heads: (1) Free range; (2) green feed; (3) 
shade; (4) housing; (5) management. 

Free Range. — The best growth and the most vigorous chicks 
can only be realized by giving the growing birds an abundance of 
free range (Figs. 170 and 171). Overcrowding, both as to area of 



ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 371 

land and housing space, will cause much trouble during the devel- 
oping period. With small flocks it may be possible to rear birds 
satisfactorily on limited range or in bare yards, but this is the 
exception. Such a plan requires more time and expensive methods 
of feeding. Many large farms have tried limited range for the 
growing birds, and have abandoned the practice. Large areas 
for young stock are preferred even if close confinement is prac- 
tised with the layers. Abundance of range room not only means 
more vigor, but it also aids in reducing the cost of feeding. Much 
feed can be obtained from worms and insects. If the range is 
properly seeded in alfalfa or other leguminous crops, the grains 
fad can be reduced in proportion to the amount of such green 
feed available. 

Green feed is absolutely essential during the growing period, 
and can most economically be supplied by growing it on the range. 
Where limited range is attempted, considerable expense must be 
incurred in supplying green feed from an outside source in the 
form of cabbage, grass clippings, or sprouted grains. A range 
which can be kept seeded down to permanent sod is the best. 
When birds are kept in such numbers as to destroy the grass, 
it will be found desirable to divide the range and practise rota- 
tion. Raise quick-growing succulent crops and allow the birds 
to eat them directly, first from one yard, then from another 
(Chapter IX). 

The crops used (Fig. 172) should be planted early, the wheat 
and rye being seeded as soon as the birds leave in the fall, and the 
peas and oats as early as possible in the spring. The corn should 
be seeded so that it will be about one foot high before the birds 
are placed on the range in the spring. With this rotation the 
birds are provided with an abundance of green feed, and the 
corn furnishes plenty of shade. Each year the practice should be 
to move the rotation one series ahead, to bring a new crop on 
each plat. This will necessitate moving the houses, and it is 
better to place them in the wheat, since that is the first crop 
ready for feeding. This yearly moving also does away with the 
clanger of disease about the houses. 

An abundance of shade is necessary for a normal healthy devel- 
opment. The most desirable shade is that which is made by a 
growing plant, as it is much cooler and gives off considerable 
moisture (Fig. 171). The best practice is to plant the range in 
fruit trees, such as peaches, plums, or apples. An old apple or 



372 



CARE OF THE GROWING STOCK 



peach orchard can be profitably maintained as a range area for 
the shade which can be derived. 

When no trees are present, or while the trees are getting 
their growth, it will be found profitable to plant such crops as 
corn, sunflowers, and, if there are fences, flowering beans may be 
grown. A good plan for rotation of crops is shown in figure 172. 

Artificial shelters may be made of muslin frames or branches 
of trees supported a few feet above the ground. 





□ 






PLAT I 


a 

PLATZT 

□ 

a 
□ 


plat m 


PLAT IV 


Pe<as and Oats 


a 

Wheat and Rye 

a 
□ 
a 
□ 
□ 


Corn 


Clover 



Fig. 172. — A desirable rotation of crops for poultry runs. Each year it is moved ahead 
one plat, the houses always being located on the wheat and rye. 

Housing. — In the design and construction of range or summer 
developing houses, there are three essential features to consider, — 
namely, portability, fresh air, and size. 

The houses should be moved from place to place as the range 
is changed. They may be used during the winter as laying houses 
for small flocks. They should be so constructed as to provide an 
abundance of ventilation and fresh air to the growing chicks 
(Fig. 173). Crowded, stuffy quarters will weaken the vitality of 
the chicks. When providing this ventilation, drafts across the 
roosts must be avoided. It is a mistake to build colony houses 
too small. Such a house is hard to ventilate properly, and the 
tendency is to crowd too many chicks into one flock, with disas- 



ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 



373 



trous results. About fifty chicks is a large enough number in a 
single colony house. In some sections the practice is to place 
only twenty-five in each house. The capacity will depend upon 
the floor space and fresh-air feature. A house 6x8 feet, if prop- 
erly ventilated, will accommodate fifty growing pullets without 
any trouble. Colony houses are usually elevated above the ground 
from ten to twelve inches and provided with a wooden floor. 




Fig. 173. — Four types of summer developing houses. A, Fresh-air house so constructed 
that both side w.alls hinge and open upward, allowing an unlimited circulation of air; B, shed- 
roof colony house; C, a wide-open house; D, a portable summer chick shelter, showing a 
luxuriant vegetation furnishing an abundance of green feed and shade. 



The houses should be located at frequent intervals about 
the range (Fig. 170), care being taken to place them on high 
spots that are not damp or muddy during wet weather. If they 
are some distance apart, there will be less possibility of the birds 
mixing. One hundred feet will provide ample range, and, if the 
birds are confined for two or three days when first placed on the 
range, there will be little mixing in their houses. Roosts should not 
be placed in the colony houses until the birds are at least four 



374 CARE OF THE GROWING STOCK 

months old. If allowed to roost too early, crooked or twisted 
breast-bones will be the result. The floor should be covered with 
a good dry litter of an absorbent nature. The litter should be 
cleaned out at least once a month, or oftener if the droppings 
show signs of remaining moist. 

Management. — The plan should be to take the chicks directly 
from the brooder house to their permanent developing houses. 
Frequent changing and transferring is undesirable, as it keeps the 
birds unsettled and they will not grow properly. In feeding 
and caring for them disturb them as little as possible. 

As soon as sex can be distinguished readily, the time varying 
with different breeds, the males should be separated and placed 
on another range. If they are allowed to remain in a mixed flock, 
neither sex will develop to the size and vigor at maturity which 
they would attain if separated. Thereafter the management of 
the two sexes is entirely different. The pullets should develop to 
normal size so that they will be in good laying condition at the 
proper time in the fall. The males should be in market condition 
at as early an age as possible. The males to be matured as breed- 
ers should be selected and given separate range, while those for 
broiling or roasting should be more closely confined. 

Supply of Feed. — In feeding the growing chicks, provide 
them with an abundance of feed of the right composition, and 
supply this in such a way as to reduce the labor to the lowest 
point and yet be consistent with best results. This can be done 
by using dry-mash supplemented by cracked grains. The dry- 
mash should be fed in large, outdoor, self-feeding hoppers, which 
are made waterproof. It is also possible to feed a part of the 
cracked grain in hoppers, but at least one feeding a day should be 
made by an attendant going around from house to house and 
scattering it. This provides a certain amount of personal atten- 
tion which is necessary for best results. In the case of growing 
stock this personal attention can be cut down more than in any 
other line of the poultry work, but should never be entirely 
eliminated. 

In handling the growing stock induce continuous growth from 
the time the birds are put on the range until they are placed in 
winter quarters. A check in growth, due to improper housing or 
feeding conditions, may retard the ultimate development many 
weeks, resulting in smaller fowls with low vitality. It is very 
important in caring for pullets to bring them to maturity at the 



REVIEW 375 

right time in the fall. If growth is retarded, their development 
is slow, and they will be unprofitable as winter egg producers. 

Rations. — The following dry-mash is good for feeding grow- 
ing stock, from twelve weeks of age to maturity. This is to be 
kept constantly before the birds in self-feeding hoppers. 

Wheat bran 100 lbs. 

Ground oats 50 lbs. 

Corn meal 50 lbs. 

Alfalfa meal 10 lbs. 

Meat scrap 20 lbs. 



Total 230 lbs. 

The composition of the dry-mash must be varied somewhat- 
according to the character of the range, 

A grain ration should be fed twice daily or kept before the 
birds in grain hoppers. This may consist of cracked corn, 100 
lbs., and wheat, 200 lbs. 

REVIEW. 

1. Discuss effect of varying weather conditions upon chicks at weaning time. 

2. Discuss inherited characteristics and their effect upon the growth of the 

chicks. 

3. Name five environmental conditions which affect the chicks' growth. 

4. Of what use is free range to growing stock? 

5. Will chicks grow well without green feed? How is it supplied? 

6. What is the most desirable shade for poultry? 

7. Give three desirable features in summer colony houses. 

8. Describe an efficient colony house. 

9. Give special points in the management of growing stock. 

10. How does the feeding of growing stock differ from the feeding of laying 

stock? 

1 1 . Tell of the harm of allowing a check in growth of the young stock. 

12. Give a complete ration for feeding the growing stock. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS. 

The production of poultry for meat offers to the small poul- 
tryman, the intensive poultry keeper, and the farmer alike a 
possible source of considerable revenue at slight expense. It 
offers exceptional opportunities on the farm, for there range is 
usually abundant and cheap, and the raising of broilers, and 
especially roasters, can be well combined with the average farm 
routine. Again, for the production of market eggs many pullets 
are hatched each year. There will always be surplus cockerels, 
which if properly handled and marketed will yield a good revenue. 
There is a steady demand for first-class prime dressed and live 
poultry at exceedingly attractive prices, the demand being more 
constant than with other types of meat. The various kinds of 
dressed poultry have their seasons and corresponding fluctuations 
in price. It becomes the problem of the poultryman, if he counts 
on any income from this source, to study seasons and markets 
and adjust his stock to meet these requirements. 

Types of Market Poultry. — Commercially, market poultry may 
be divided into the following classifications, which are recognized 
by all commission houses, retail jobbers, and the trade. Prices 
are quoted regularly on the basis of this classification: Fowls, 
broilers, fryers, roasters, capons. 

Fowls. — In the markets the term " fowl " means all female 
birds one year old or over (Fig. 174). The great majority of these 
are usually sold in the summer and fall when they have finished 
their second or third year of laying, and are then disposed of to 
make room for incoming pullets. Such fowls bring the lowest 
price in the market, with the one exception of roosters, or old 
male birds, for which there is little demand, owing to inferior 
quality. A large number of fowls are sold alive, and shipped by 
carloads to heavy consuming centres. In the East a leading 
factor in the control of the live-poultry market is the heavy de- 
mand during the Jewish holidays which come in the fall of the 
year. Variation in the selling price of fowls throughout the year 
is very slight, — less, in fact, than of any other market type. 

Plump, moderately fat fowls are in the greatest demand, thin 
376 



BROILER RAISING 377 

or excessively fat birds being undesirable. A large mass of solid 
fat protruding from the lower posterior part of the abdomen 
makes the bird unsuitable for the best trade. 

Broiler raising is one of the greatest specialties of the poultry- 
industry. Its conception and development as an exclusive busi- 
ness was first attempted in the year 1885. It was at first carried 
on as a side issue to general farming, especially fruit growing and 
market gardening. The prevailing high prices for rapidly grown 
young chicks during winter and spring, combined with the intro- 
duction of improved methods in artificial incubation and brooding, 
were largely responsible for this development and rapidly increas- 




Fig. 174. — A flock of fowls ready for market. 

ing popularity. Great numbers of people went into the business; 
a few succeeded where many failed. As with everything else 
which starts with a boom, a reaction followed. 

At the present time the poultryman has come to realize that 
the most profitable, and really most suitable, place for the rais- 
ing of market broilers is a general poultry farm, where the time 
given to their production can be regulated by the market price 
and the labor required. A few of these large and exclusive broiler 
plants are in existence to-day and paying good dividends. The 
country is dotted here and there with traces of the boom when it 
was at its height. The amount of money sunk in this one line of 
poultry work, largely because of inexperience and lack of capital 
of the investors, is enormous. 

The great bulk of broilers which reach the larger markets 
come from general farms and egg farms, and are shipped to the 
markets in the late spring and early summer. They are not pro- 
duced as a main source of revenue, but are a by-product, as it 



378 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

were, from the hatching and rearing of pullets for laying. It is 
this sudden influx of the general supply which brings the price 
down and makes it unprofitable for the specialists to produce for 
a yearly market. The specialist or the general poultry farmer 
who wishes to cater to the seasonable broiler trade must send his 
birds to market from January to May in order to get a price which 
will pay him for his trouble. This is why broiler raising can be so 
well carried on with general poultry farming. It utilizes a part of 
the equipment and the labor at a time of the year when there is 
least to do. The growing of broilers as a side line to egg farming, 
or as a special branch of general poultry farming, is well worth 
the time and attention of a poultryman who has the necessary 
equipment and can furnish the labor at the proper season. 

The following summary of the broiler industry and its re- 
quirements sets forth the essential features to be understood and 
considered, both theoretically and practically, before launching 
out in the business, either exclusively or as a side line. The 
production of a few broilers each year in connection with egg 
farming is the best and, practically, the only method of safely 
learning the " ins and outs " of broiler raising. 

To be successful, the poultryman must consider the following 
points: (1) What a broiler really is; (2) market types of broilers; 
(3) broiler seasons and the effect of natural supply; (4) desirable 
features in a broiler; (5) breeds best adapted to broiler raising; 
(6) special features in broiler management; (7) prices, cost, and 
profits. 

A broiler is a young, rapidly grown chicken, which, owing 
to its size and prime flesh condition, is in general demand for 
broiling. Before starting out to produce anything, the producer 
must have a clear conception of the desired product and what 
purpose it is to serve, for this will enable him the better to meet 
the requirements and secure the best quality. 

The market classifies broilers in three groups: Large, medium, 
and small or squab (Fig. 175). 

A pair of large broilers should weigh from three to four pounds, 
or one and one-half to two pounds each. Large broilers are also 
used extensively as fryers, anol are in great demand during the 
latter part of the broiler season, bringing at this time as much 
per pound as small broilers. 

Medium broilers should weigh from one to one and one-half 
pounds each, or from two to three pounds to the pair. The me- 



BROILER RAISING 379 

dium broiler is very popular, and brings the highest price during 
the broiler season proper, but after that time brings no more per 
pound than the large broiler, or even the larger frying chicken. 

Small or squab broilers weigh from three-quarters to one 
pound each, or from one and one-half to two pounds to the pair. 
This grade of broiler is the most expensive for the consumer, and 
is used only at high-class luncheons and dinners, or in high-class 
hotel and restaurant trade; consequently it is in much less demand. 

The true squab broiler should be considered rather as an in- 
cidental in the broiler industry, while the medium broiler con- 
stitutes the leading type, from the standpoint of both demand 
and supply, during the season of high prices. 

N The commission merchant handles during the season the great 
mass of broilers, the large buyers of this grade of meat being 

A B C 




Fig. 175. — Market types of broilers. A, Large; B, medium; C, small or squab. 

first-class hotels, restaurants, and well-to-do families. It is custom- 
ary in serving to give half of a large broiler, or the entire bird 
of the small or squab grade, to each person, this dish usually 
forming but one course of the meal. The medium broilers are 
served either whole or in half, according to the place which they 
occupy in the meal. During the latter part of the season, when 
prices drop and large broilers come into market, the demand is 
much greater. Because of lower prices, persons of small means 
can afford them. The demand then is for larger broilers, which 
can be served so as to constitute the only meat course. 

The broiler seasons are determined largely by the demand and 
supply (Fig. 176). There is comparatively little demand for broil- 
ers until November, owing largely to the fact that during the sum- 
mer there are fewer functions or dinners requiring them. Besides, 
most of the well-to-do families are away for the summer, and the 
hotels and restaurants which constitute over eighty per cent of 



380 



BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 



the consumers have no call for this product. The demand begins 
in November and December, continuing and increasing until the 
middle of February, when it is at its height. From this time until 
July, the demand is approximately steady; but, after the last of 
March, there is a constantly increasing supply, which keeps the 
price from rising, and in fact makes it slowly fall. There is no 
great decline until the last of May, when the price drops suddenly. 
This is largely because of the enormous natural and seasonable 
supply brought to market as a surplus product from the hatching 
of pullets. The profitable season, then, for specialized broiler 





Aug. 


Sept 


Oot 


JYbvr 


Dea 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar 


April 


May- 


June 


July 




Pnce 

IS 

so 
































45 




























40 










( 


J 
















35 










f 


















30 




























25 


















Su& 










20 


























P 






15 





























Fig. 176. — Curves showing seasonal variations in price and the supply of broilers. This 
shows that the supplies of March, April, and May are met by a high price. 



growing is in the months of December, January, February, March, 
and April, with its " high-water mark " during March. The chart 
(Fig. 176) shows the curve of demand and price, the effect of 
the incoming natural supply, and the correspondingly increased 
demand due to lower price. 

Desirable Features in a Broiler. — To fulfil the definition of 
a broiler, hence to meet market requirements and the demands 
of the trade, a chicken should come up to the following standard : 
(1) It should be plump all over, well filled out, especially breast 
and thighs. (2) It should have comparatively small bones, 
large bones giving a rangy and lanky appearance to the bird 
when dressed. (3) It should be meaty everywhere; want of flesh 



BROILER RAISING 381 

not only makes an undersized and light bird, but greatly detracts 
from the general appearance of the fowl when dressed, showing 
the bony framework of the body. (4) Yellow skin and yellow 
legs are preferred. This question of the color of the skin is merely 
a market demand, but it is very pronounced. Of two shipments, 
equal in every respect, one with white or dark legs and the other 
with yellow, the latter will always be bought first at higher price. 
(5) White or light-feathered birds are best. After plucking, 
there are no dark pins and pits to detract from the appearance; 
this feature is less important than those previously mentioned, 
yet it does have weight. (6) Broilers should have been hatched 
from a quick-maturing strain or breed, from parents which were 
quickly matured. The broilers must be brought to maturity as 
quickly as possible to economize time, to secure tenderness and 
texture of flesh, and to reduce the cost of feeding and labor. A 
broiler which has developed slowly, and taken twice the usual 
time to attain a given weight, will never be a profitable bird, for 
the margin of profit is small. An understanding of the above 
requirements, and their bearing on price and demand, is necessary 
in order that the possibilities of the broiler industry may be fully 
realized. 

Breeds Best Adapted to Broiler Raising. — As a rule, it may 
be stated that the American or general utility breeds more nearly 
fulfil the requirements for broiler raising than any other class 
of fowls; this is especially true of the large broiler. The Wyan- 
dottes, Plymouth Rocks, and Rhode Island Reds, if properly 
managed, will attain a quick growth in twelve to fifteen weeks, 
weighing at that time from one and one-half to two pounds each, 
and they dress well and are always in demand. The White Wyan- 
dottes probably offer as great opportunities for this class of broil- 
ers as any one breed. It must here be emphasized that it is not 
always the breed, but the breeding back of the particular strain, 
which tells the story. 

In the hands of different breeders, various breeds may be 
made to excel one another. The aim should be to select a good 
breed, with the distinctive characteristics desired, and then by 
breeding attempt to intensify those characteristics, at the same 
time breeding to develop early maturity and vitality (Fig. 177). 
For the squab and medium broiler trade, it is possible to turn out 
the highest quality of poultry in the shortest possible time and 
at the least expense by using White Leghorns. They are quick to 



382 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

mature ; a well-managed flock of fifty should average one pound at 
from nine to ten weeks of age. They have a bright yellow skin and 
shanks, their meat is of the highest quality when young, and they 
grow very quickly. It is a great mistake in broiler raising to use, 
either by crossing or direct breeding, any of the slow-maturing, 
heavy Asiatic breeds. It is true they will attain size, but they 
mature so very slowly that they are unprofitable; at a one-pound 
weight they are bony, and have a long, lean appearance when 
picked. Pure-bred birds should always be used for broilers, since 
in crossbreeding it is impossible to fix the characteristics desired, 
and the progeny are neither uniform nor reliable. The greatest 




Fig. 177. — Rhode Island Red broilers ready for market. Uniformity in size and finish 

is necessary. 

objection to crossing is the resulting variability in size and quality. 
This is an important consideration, for uniformity adds to an 
attractive appearance and usually guarantees a high price. 

Special Features in Broiler Management. — The management of 
broilers is similar to that required in the growing of young chicks. 
The chief difference is that the best season comes during the 
winter, a time of year when a complete artificial brooding equip- 
ment is necessary; the chicks must be fed for rapid growth, and 
at the same time kept healthy and vigorous. The features for 
special consideration are: (1) Hatch only strictly fresh eggs which 
come from well-mated, vigorous birds, being sure that the eggs 
have not been chilled. (2) Maintain the right degree of hover 
temperature, which will promote continuous growth. Too much 
heat will mean slow growth, and too little warmth will cause 
crowding and entirely check it. (3) Do not run too large flocks, 
as crowding tends to exaggerate inherited inequalities in vigor 
and growth, the smaller ones not getting a chance. Twenty-five 
to thirty in a pen are enough for the best results. (4) Continual 



BROILER RAISING 383 

selection, weeding out the culls and deformed chicks at as early an 
age as possible, and maintaining flocks of uniform size. It never 
pays to run small birds with a flock of larger ones. (5) The in- 
ducing of exercise keeps the birds in excellent health as well 
as appetite. The more the birds eat the greater their gain 
in weight. (6) Systematic feeding, similar to that recommended 
for growing chicks, but with a greater percentage of flesh-forming 
materials, bone and meat scrap and abundance of green feed pro- 
mote growth and influence the color of the flesh by producing a 
yellowish pigment. (7) In finishing broilers there is rarely a 
special time for fattening, the custom being to mature the chicks 
rapidly throughout the entire growth period, keeping them soft 
and plump and ready for killing all the time. 

Prices, Cost, and Profits. — Before attempting to raise broilers, 
it is advisable to have a clear understanding of the probable cost 
of production, of selling prices, and of the profits under average 
conditions. In broiler raising these factors are variable, and the 
season of high and profitable prices is short. Generally the pos- 
sibility of profits makes the work attractive, yet the risks are 
great. The cost of producing broilers varies because of differences 
in management, differences in breeds, unavoidable losses, and 
variations in the season. On special broiler plants, the average 
cost of producing a broiler weighing from one to one and a half 
pounds, including price of eggs and labor, is approximately twenty- 
five to twenty-six cents. It may be possible slightly to reduce 
this figure, but not materially. Other items in the cost of produc- 
tion are the high price of- eggs at the season when they are hatched 
for winter broilers, the loss from low fertility, and the small per- 
centage of hatches compared with what could be obtained during 
the natural hatching season. 

The approximate cost is given here. These figures are for 
the winter season, and vary considerably during this period : 

Cost of chick at hatching, including egg and incubator $0.06 

Feed cost from hatching to marketing 10 

Labor cost, not including picking or packing 03 

Expense of marketing, including picking, express, and commission .07 

Total 26 

It is probable that chicks raised under natural conditions 
during the spring of the year can be produced for about three- 
quarters of the above total. The cost will depend largely upon 



384 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

the condition of the bird, the character of the range, and whether 
it furnishes an unlimited amount of the best green feed. 

The estimated cost of the average farm broiler during the 
natural season is here given: 

Cost of chick $0,035 

Cost of feed 06 

Cost of labor 02 

Cost of marketing 07 

Total 185 

It will be noted that this great reduction in cost is due to the 
lower price of the eggs and the cheaper feed. The comparison 
shows that profit during the winter season depends upon low cost 
of production and good market prices, and that during the natural 
spring season the profits are not remarkable, but the idea is to dis- 
pose of surplus products without loss, and usually with a slight gain. 

There are certain risks which even the broiler grower of es- 
tablished reputation and experience must always run, and these 
are largely beyond his control: (1) A loss from poor hatches due 
to low fertility, and this increases the cost of hatching chicks. 
(2) Loss by death, which may be due to poor management or 
carelessness, or, as is often the case, to white diarrhoea, or some 
inherited weakness or lack of vitality. (3) Losses may be caused 
by fluctuation in market prices; this is especially true if the 
poultryman has started rather late and runs his season too late. 
The usual spring drop in price may catch him with a considerable 
number on hand, which must often be sold below cost. 

Market prices, however, are much more steady during the 
season than formerly, and it is now possible to forecast market 
conditions far ahead of the time for shipment. The chief cause 
of many disappointments and failures in the specialized broiler 
industry lies in the attractive possibilities, — attractive to people 
of limited capital and still less experience, — a combination bound 
to result in failure. The business requires a considerable fixed 
investment of capital in buildings and in incubation and brooding 
equipment. To be profitable the birds must be marketed in prime 
condition. A few days earlier or later than the proper time for 
marketing means either increased cost for feed and labor if they 
are kept too long, or a lower price if marketed too early. 

A disputed question on the large, exclusive, broiler plant is the 
desirability or undesirability of the broiler raiser producing his 



ROASTERS 385 

own eggs for hatching. In general the practice is not to produce 
them at all; or, if any, merely a part. The great difficulty is the 
necessity of keeping a large flock to produce the eggs in winter, 
and it would require considerable time and attention successfully 
to solve this proposition. It is becoming the custom for the 
broiler grower to make contracts with the larger poultrymen in 
the vicinity to supply him with eggs at the season desired. He 
guarantees to take a certain number, and to pay usually from 
three to five cents a dozen more than the market price for selected 
eggs in good hatching condition. In order to secure strong vitality 
and as high fertility as possible, many of the growers agree to 
furnish the male birds for the flocks, and by purchasing large, 
vigorous males of other breeding the value of the eggs for their 
purpose is greatly increased. 

It is poor policy to gather eggs in small lots from the country 
where no pains have been taken to make them fit for hatching. 

Broiler raising, as an exclusive and distinct poultry industry, 
is on the decline. Poultrymen are coming to realize the possi- 
bilities offered by making the production of market eggs the main 
issue, and are devoting only so much time to the raising of prime 
broilers in season, as may be profitably taken from other work. 
This change in economic conditions results in greater profit from 
the broiler produced, in more persons shipping broilers, and in a 
steadier supply, and in a more stable selling price. 

Fryers.- — By a frying chicken is meant a young, rapidly grown 
bird a few weeks older than a large broiler, weighing from two and 
one-half to three and one-half pounds. There is little demand for 
birds of this age and weight, and the price paid is so low that it 
is customary either to dispose of them when at the large broiler 
size, or, if they are beyond this stage, to hold them for soft roasters 
at four pounds and above. The term " fryers " is not distinctive, 
for chicks at all ages are used for frying, especially large broilers. 

Roasters. — The growing of prime roasters as an industry is 
centralized in two well-defined sections in the East, namely, along 
the south shore of Massachusetts and in south-central New 
Jersey. In these two sections much time and attention are de- 
voted to this as an exclusive industry, but often as a side issue in 
general farming. In Massachusetts the industry is carried on 
more exclusively, while in New Jersey the great majority of 
farmers plan to raise and finish from one hundred to five hundred 
and, in some cases, over one thousand roasters. Roaster grow- 
25 



386 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

ing is undoubtedly more profitable when carried on as a side line 
to some branch of agriculture, for its season is short, and the 
amount of labor required from hatching time to finishing is small. 
The returns are very satisfactory, but the cost of producing 
varies greatly, this depending upon the amount and kind of range 
for grazing. There are two great advantages which the roaster 
growers of the New Jersey district have, — namely, large fields 
for range after grain crops, or green pasture following the first 
cutting of hay. These areas serve admirably for supplying plenty 
of the required nutriment at so little expense that the cost of 
production is materially reduced. 

Roaster growing on an exclusive basis may call for the in- 
vestment of a large amount of capital in buildings and equipment, 
and the production must be considerable to pay an interest on 
the investment. Some returns are coming in constantly, yet the 
heavy demand and high prices are in the first two summer months, 
and the poultryman must plan to sell much of his product at that 
time. Expenses on a specialized roaster plant are almost con- 
tinuous, and they must be met by a short period of heavy income. 

One disadvantage of the industry is the long time which one 
has to carry his crop before it is marketed, and this is expensive. 
An endeavor has been made to combine broiler and roaster farm- 
ing, but with little success. This is largely due to the fact that, 
with a given location and certain conditions, either one or the other 
will be found to be the more profitable, and by attempting both 
the poultryman fails to make as much out of either. If they are 
combined, he must carry two distinct types of breeding birds 
which need entirely different management, hatching must take 
place at different seasons, and there must be an altogether dif- 
ferent method of finishing and marketing; therefore it is wise to 
confine one's endeavors to one branch and to master it. 

To succeed in the growing of prime roasters, a poultryman 
must become familiar with the following general factors: (1) 
What the term " roaster " implies; (2) market types of roasters; 
(3) natural seasons of demand and variation in price; (4) features 
of a desirable roaster; (5) breeds best adapted to roaster growing; 
(6) special points in management. 

What the Term Roaster Implies. — A roaster is a young, quickly 
developed but fully grown bird, with tender meat of fair weight, 
and, owing to its large size and good quality of flesh, in prime 
condition for roasting. 



ROASTERS 



387 



In roaster growing it is absolutely necessary that the producer 
know the requirements, and the difference between a bird in prime 
condition for roasting and one which is not, for they vary greatly 
according to breed characteristics and management. 

Market Types of Roaster. — Commercially, roasters are classi- 
fied as small and large. The greatest demand is for small roasters 
weighing from eight to ten pounds to the pair, or four to five 
pounds each. Such birds suit the average family better than 
larger ones. Large roasters, weighing twelve pounds to the pair 
or more, are in considerable demand, especially during holiday 
seasons (Fig. 178). They often weigh singly as much as the 




Fig. 178. — Market types of roasting chickens. A, Large roaster, six pounds; B, small 

roaster, four pounds. 

smaller ones will average per pair. The production of these large 
roasters for seasonable markets is one of the most profitable 
branches of poultry keeping, especially if there is abundant green 
grass range. The demand for them is steadily on the increase. 

Roaster Seasons and Prices. — There is a good market for a 
prime roaster at any season of the year, but the problem of the 
specialist is how to bring his birds to maturity at the time of 
natural shortage and correspondingly higher prices. This period 
is from the first of June to the middle of August; it constitutes 
the shipping season of the south-shore section and of heavy in- 
come. The fall of the year is the natural roaster period. The 
prices then are slightly lower, due to the large supply of birds from 
general and mixed farms shipped to market at about this time. 

Another profitable shipping period is late November and 



388 



BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 



December, or during the holiday season. This is the market to 
which the great mass of roaster growers attempt to cater, — that 
is, those who carry on the business in connection with some other 
well-defined branch of agriculture. There is never a time when 
the supply so nearly equals the demand as to make the prices drop 
low enough to be unprofitable. There have been periods of glut- 
ted markets, but only for an extremely short time. These have 
been due to heavy shipments, during the fall, to the large consum- 
ing centres from the Central West. The season's prices vary con- 
siderably, due almost entirely to demand and supply. The chart 
shows this price curve (Fig. 179). 

Features of a Desirable Roaster. — In general, the description 
of a prime broiler also applies to a roaster. In addition, however, 
the following points are desirable in the roaster: Great length of 



1911 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


JVbvr 


Dec 


Jan 


Feb 


Mar 


April 


May 


June 


July 




'i 
30 


























30 


25 


























25 


20 


























20 


15 


























15 



Fig. 179. — Curve showing seasonal variations in market prices for roasters, 
realized during winter months. 



Highest prices 



body with extremely full breast, the entire carcass to be full and 
plump, and rounded rather than angular. Yellow skin and shanks 
are preferable in most markets. The color of the feathers is of less 
consequence in roasters than in broilers, because the pin-feathers 
are not large enough to be evident. Although fully matured, the 
flesh of the roaster must be soft and tender, with plenty of fat 
and little connective tissue such as would be found in full-grown 
Leghorns. 

Breeds Adapted to Roaster Growing. — In regard to maturity 
the requirements for the two types of commercial roasters are 
wholly different. For example, the small roaster is marketed at 
an earlier age and earlier season, consequently he must be matured 
earlier; while with the large, full-grown roaster, which was slowly 
matured, juicy and tender flesh is demanded. 

For small roasters the general utility breeds, especially the 



ROASTERS 389 

Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, and Wyandottes, are very 
suitable. The Orpington makes good flesh growth, but the color 
of the shanks is discounted by the consumer. This type of fowl 
matures rather quickly and has juicy meat at maturity. The 
early maturity reduces the period of feeding; hence each pound of 
flesh is produced more cheaply than would be possible with the 
larger Asiatic breeds. These breeds do not attain sufficient size 
to admit of their being finished and marketed as large roasters. 
It is necessary, then, to secure a bird of larger growth which will 
have very tender flesh at maturity. 

The Asiatics are good for this purpose, the best being the 
Brahma, and the light variety being generally preferred. With 
good care and abundant feed they will slowly grow to a very 
great size, and will reach maturity in time for the fall and winter 
demand, the flesh being very tender when killing time comes. 
They will also finish profitably, as they are naturally of a quiet 
temperament and stand close confinement well. The Light 
Brahma and some fowls of the American class are sometimes 
crossed, but there is no decided advantage in doing this. 

Special Features of Roaster Management. — Roaster growing 
as an exclusive business requires an extensive equipment for late 
fall and winter hatches and suitable houses in which to grow 
the chicks during the cold winter weather. On the contrary, 
roaster growing for the fall and winter trade requires only the 
simplest kind of pens or houses for developing the birds. The 
size and style of the hatching equipment depend upon the number 
to be run through, which is usually so small that no expensive 
outfit is necessary. Extensive range and the keeping of the birds 
in flocks of not over one hundred are customary. The best and 
cheapest method is to give them free range, if possible, with small 
developing houses scattered at short distances apart. 

Expensive and systematic feeding is unnecessary during the 
growing period, if the birds have range which furnishes an abun- 
dance of green feed and insects. Costly feeding comes just before 
the time of marketing, when the birds should be closely confined 
to put them in first-class condition by forced or systematic feed- 
ing. The confinement stops their continuous exercise. Ground 
grains are usually sufficient during the summer feeding period. 
If we wish to hasten the growth, a dry-mash may be given. Shade 
on the range is essential, as well as an abundance of fresh drinking 
water, for the flesh of the well-grown roaster requires much water. 



390 



BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 



The production of market poultry, especially of roasters, 
could be made very profitable on a great majority of the general 
farms which now carry only a small flock for home consumption, 
the labor item being almost infinitesimal, except during the finish- 
ing and marketing periods. Under these conditions the cost for 
feed is slight and the extra labor required comes at the slack time 
of the year. The general farm flock produces the great mass of 
poultry and eggs. Let it do so to a still greater extent, and mul- 
tiply the income of the farmer. 

Capons. — There are great possibilities in the more extended 
practice of capon production. The industry is in its infancy, and 




Fig. 180. — A flock of capons five months old. 

each year sees a great increase in the number of capons produced. 
The possibilities must be clearly understood. The poultryman 
should become thoroughly acquainted with the operation before 
attempting the practice commercially. The art of caponizing has 
been understood and practised for many years, yet its possibilities 
are just becoming understood and being developed. 

A capon is a male bird from which the reproductive organs 
have been removed at an early age. Emasculation changes the 
entire physical make-up of the cockerel, altering his shape and 
the appearance of his plumage; he loses his masculine character- 
istics and gains weight very rapidly (Fig. 180). 

Advantages of Caponizing. — From the standpoint of produc- 
tion of poultry meat of high flavor and quality, caponizing is very 
desirable. Its advantages are : Larger and heavier fowls at killing 



CAPONS • 391 

time; sweeter meat of finer flavor; a much higher selling price; a 
lower cost, due to ease of fattening ; a more docile disposition and 
better endurance of close confinement; can be used when desired 
for hovering young chicks, 

During the same period of growth it is possible to produce 
capons which will weigh one-half more than they would normally 
weigh. A cockerel of the American breeds at eight months of age 
will weigh from four to five pounds. The same bird, if caponized 
when about twelve weeks old, can easily be made to weigh from 
six to eight pounds at eight months, and at the same time the 
flesh of the capon will be more tender, of finer texture, and of 
superior flavor. True capon flesh is much sweeter than that from 
the cockerel of the same age. The term " Philadelphia capon " 
is familiar to everybody connected with the industry, or who 
appreciates excellent quality in chicken flesh. At marketing 
time, or eight months of age, the capon will command on the 
market from twenty-two to thirty cents a pound, according to 
the season, while the cockerel would bring only from thirteen to 
twenty-five cents. These differences vary considerably through- 
out the year, the highest capon prices being during the holidays. 
The cost of feeding the capon during the eight-months' period 
will have been much less than that for the cockerel, due to the 
fact that more of the feed consumed is stored up in the body as 
flesh, and less converted into energy. After caponizing, the dis- 
position is modified: The birds become more quiet and gentle, 
endure close confinement quite well, and lose inclination to fly 
over obstacles, or to quarrel and fight one another. 

When desired, the capon can be used in colony houses during 
the early spring to hover and furnish heat for chicks as they are 
put on the range. • The capon develops such a maternal instinct 
that he will protect and care for the young chicks. 

The greatly -enhanced value, resulting from sucn a simple 
operation, is a good reason why more capons should be produced. 
Another reason is that the markets throughout the country are 
but sparingly supplied with capons, and the demand for them 
from lovers of delicate poultry meat is great. In many European 
countries few, if any, surplus cockerels are allowed to reach ma- 
turity as cockerels, but they are caponized and converted into a 
high-grade and greatly demanded table luxury. France is noted 
for the high quality of her poultry meat. The time will doubt- 
less come when the poultryman will find it difficult to dispose 



392 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

of surplus cockerels unless they are caponized. The sooner the 
general poultrjnnan and farmer appreciate this fact, the sooner 
will the quality of poultry meat be so improved that the income 
and profit from its sale will bring an increasing revenue to the 
producer. 

Market Requirements. — It may be said that there is no definite 
capon season, for the demand is constant throughout the year, 
and the supply does not begin to meet even a fractional part of 
it. December to March is the season when most capons are 
marketed, yet it is almost impossible to find any at general mar- 
kets because they are immediately bought up at high prices. 
The better an article is, the greater the demand for it at corre- 
spondingly high prices, and ordinary chicken meat has no chance 
compared with capon meat. This fact is being realized by the 
more progressive poultrymen. The demand is continuous, the 
price paid is the highest for any kind of meat, and there are no 
commercial seasons to make it necessary to produce at that time 
only. The best birds for capons are hatched in the early spring, 
and the operation is performed during the early summer before 
extremely hot weather sets in. The birds are then ready for market 
during and after the holiday season, when there is always the 
greatest demand for market poultry. 

Best Breeds for Canonizing. — Cockerels of any breed can be 
made to increase greatly in weight by being caponized; but the 
larger breeds permit of larger gains and are the most desirable. 
For the production of capons on the farm, the Plymouth Rocks 
are one of the best breeds. The pullets may be kept for eggs and 
all the surplus cockerels caponized. If the production of capons 
is a specialty, one of the heavier breeds, especially the Brahma, 
will prove more satisfactory. The Light Brahma is undoubt- 
edly the best capon breed. It is not an uncommon occurrence to 
get a flock of such capons at eight to ten months of age to weigh 
from twelve to fifteen pounds each. The light capons, such as 
are produced from Plymouth Rocks, will probably always be in 
greater demand, because they furnish more nearly the amount of 
meat required by the average family, while the larger capon will 
serve instead of a turkey for special occasions, such as holidays 
and celebrations, or for hotel and restaurant demands. Crossing 
is practised in the growing of capons, with varying results. One 
method is to cross the Barred Plymouth Rocks and Light Brahmas 
in order to get plumpness of breast, a little quicker maturity, and 



CAPONS 393 

a decided yellowness of skin and legs. It is doubtful, however, 
if this procedure is profitable in the long run. A bird with hand- 
some plumage is more attractive as a capon, for in dressing much 
of the plumage is left on; hence the partridge-colored birds are 
used to a considerable extent. 

Proper Age for Canonizing.— Cockerels can be caponized at 
any age, but it is not advisable to perform the operation after the 
birds are six months old, for by that time the natural function of 
the organs becomes so firmly established that their removal is apt 
to be disastrous. Neither is it wise to caponize a bird when too 
young, for the organs are not sufficiently developed to be easily 
removed, being very soft and easily torn. In determining the 
proper time to caponize, size should be the guide rather than age, 
the best time being when the birds weigh from one to one and one- 
half pounds, or after they are two months old. June, July, Au- 
gust, and September are the best months for the operation, because 
the spring-hatched chicks then reach the right size; birds capon- 
ized at this time will be ready for market during the months of 
December, January, February, and March, the season of the 
greatest demand and best prices. High prices at this time are 
partly due to a falling off in the supply of cockerels, which are so 
abundant in the fall and early winter; the capons fill in the gap 
caused by this reduced supply of cockerels on the one hand, and 
the natural supply of spring broilers on the other. This is not 
necessarily the capon season; it is only so termed from the fact 
that few, if any, are produced at any other season. 

Instruments and Equipment Necessary. — Before performing 
the operation, one should either see it done by an expert or prac- 
tise on dead birds until familiar with the location and appearance 
of the organs to be removed and the place for the incision and the 
manner of making it, after which perfection in the operation is 
simply a matter of practice. The student of caponizing should 
first secure a reliable set of instruments and become familiar with 
the name and purpose of each. There are many sets on the mar- 
ket which are far from perfect in design, but the ones here illus- 
trated are in most respects similar to those used by professional 
caponizers. Instruments should be chosen for their rigidity and 
durability, as well as efficiency and design. The best sets are 
made double, — that is, each end of an instrument is designed 
for some particular purpose. The set illustrated (Fig. 181) com- 
prises four instruments, as follows: Spoon and hook, forceps and 



394 



BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPO-NS 



knife, cannula threaded with horsehairs, and spreader. A cord 
with hooks is a part of the set. 

In reality the above set consists of six instruments so designed 
as to be combined into only four, thus lessening the time lost by 
handling so many instruments. The horsehairs are thick and 
about eighteen inches long. These form a loop for the cannula. 




Fig. 181. — Caponizing instruments. A, Spoon and hook; B, forceps and knife; C, cannula 
threaded with horsehair; D, spreader; E, cord and hooks. 



A suitable table or board is needed to operate on. A barrel top 
may be used, the bird being fastened down to it by means of strings 
with wire hooks at either end. To one end of each string a weight 
is fastened, while one of the free ends is tied around the wings 
near the body and the other around the shanks at the hock joint. 
Where many birds are to be caponized, it is advisable to have a 
special board which is firm and holds the bird securely, and so 
arranged that he may be quickly tied or released. 

Preparation of the Birds. — For twenty-eight to thirty-six 



CAPONS 



395 



hours before the operation the cockerels selected should be kept 
in a clean, airy coop, all feed and water being withheld; this ab- 
stinence will empty the intestines and the operation can be per- 
formed more easily. It is a good plan to shut them up at night, 
keeping them confined for thirty-six hours and performing the 
operation the second morning after. If the time set is cloudy or 
wet, the operation should be postponed until fair weather, as a 
bright light is necessary for the best work. 

The amateur should follow the directions closely, for the over- 
looking of some slight detail may result in a ruptured artery or 
the tearing of a vital organ, which may mean death. Caponizing 
is the most dangerous of all forms of emasculation, since the or- 
gans lie wholly within the cavity of the body close to the heart, 
lungs, and large arteries; hence 
the necessity of following direc- 
tions closely. 

The Operation. — Place the op- 
erating board on a barrel or table 
out of doors in some sheltered 
place, but where the sun shines 
brightly. Have the coop with the 
starved birds handy. Provide 
a shallow pan filled with a dis- 
infecting solution, one per cent 
creolin being good, in which the 
instruments can be placed. Take 

the bird from the coop, lay it on its left side with its back toward 
the operator, and fasten to the table in the manner before 
described. Moisten the hands in the disinfecting solution, and 
pluck the feathers in the vicinity of the last rib, leaving* a 
bare space free ffrom feathers, bounded by the third rib, back- 
bone, and thigh. Next take the knife or lancet in the right hand, 
cutting edge from the operator, and with the left hand press the 
two ribs about one-half inch from the backbone (Fig. 182). When 
the knife enters the skin, the bird Will struggle a little, but after 
this there will be little movement of any kind. The incision 
should be quickly made by making a cut up and down about one 
inch long, always cutting away from the backbone, and not re- 
moving the knife from the cut until it is of the desired size. The 
cut should be made deep enough to penetrate the skin and body 
walls, but not deep enough to cut the intestines. The danger of 




Fig. 182. — Dotted line shows proper 
place to make incision for caponizing. a and 
b, last ribs. 



396 



BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

A 




Fig. 183a. — Steps in the operation of eaponizing. A, Table, instruments, and bird in posi- 
tion; B, starting the incision; C, inserting the spreader. 





Fiq. 183. — Steps in the operation of caponizing (.continued). D, Tearing the peritoneum; 
E, the organ exposed and ready for removal; F, appearance of the wound after the opera- 
tion; the skin covers the opening when the bird is released. (Photos from Kansas Station.) 



this is, however, very slight if the bird has been properly starved. 
Little or no blood should appear unless some veins which lie di- 
rectly over the rib are cut. This can be avoided by pulling the 
skin back before making the first incision (Fig. 183a). 

Next insert the flat hooks of the spring spreader, allowing 



398 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

them to press against the ribs on either side, and thus hold the 
incision open, the opening being controlled by the size of the 
chicken. A thin, tissue-like skin will now be perceived on looking 
into the cut, and it is next necessary to rupture this by using the 
hook on the end of the spoon. Care should be used in tearing 
this not to rupture the intestines or arteries. The tear should be 
right under the incision, and no larger than the opening. On look- 
ing into the opening the testicles can now be seen, attached to 
the back. At the age of three months they will appear as little 
rolls of fat, yellow in color, about one-half an inch long, and 
about the size of a kernel of wheat. 

Now comes the delicate and hard part of the operation, — 
namely, the securing and removal of these organs. The best pro- 
cedure is as follows: Take the spoon in the left hand, and press 
the intestines back with same until the lower testicle lies in the 
spoon, then take the cannula, which has been previously threaded 
with horsehair, leaving a loop about double the size of the tes- 
ticle, the hair being knotted at the upper end, leaving a large 
loop of such size as to admit the thumb, and small enough so that 
it will be possible to draw the lower loop tight by an upward 
movement of the thumb. After fixing the cannula firmly in the 
right hand, place the small loop over the testicle with the aid 
of the spoon, gradually elevating the thumb until the lower 
testicle is firmly held in the loop, then by an upward movement 
of the thumb and a gradual drawing up of the cannula, at the 
same time twisting it slightly, the testicle and the sac in which 
it is enclosed will be entirely removed. The spoon should be held 
under the testicle to catch it when it is severed. The same pro- 
cedure should follow in the removal of the upper one, except that 
it will be found much easier, as it lies near the top in better view 
and is more easily reached. The object of removing the lower 
one first is that, in case of any bleeding from prior removal of the 
upper one, it would be impossible to find the lower one. After 
both testicles are removed, take out the spreader, and the skin 
will slip back over the opening. The bird should be immediately 
released. It has sometimes been suggested that the testicle be 
removed by an incision on both sides of the bird; but this is un- 
necessary, except in the case of the first few birds done by an 
amateur, or where the birds have not fasted long enough. 

Slips and Deaths. — If during the operation the tissue of the 
testicle is ruptured or torn, there is a possibility of some of it 



CAPONS 399 

remaining attached to the body, in which case the organ will 
start to develop and a slip will result. This means that the opera- 
tion was incomplete, that some of the organ remains in the body, 
and that the bird will not develop capon characteristics nor grow 
as desired. In commercial caponizing this accident occurs in from 
three to five per cent of all birds operated upon. The possi- 
bility of fatalities is very slight after one has acquired the art. 
Death usually results from the rupture of a large artery which 
runs along the back of the body, and to which the testicle sac is 
closely attached. When this occurs, either from a misuse of the 
hook or a too deep knife cut near the backbone, or, in some cases, 
as a result of not getting the right hold on the testicle with the hair 
loop, the birds will immediately bleed to death. Such rupture 
is indicated by the presence of a large amount of blood in the 
cavity of the body, and perhaps by the noise which the escaping 
blood makes. These birds should be immediately plucked, for 
they can be used as broilers, the bleeding being the same as would 
be caused by sticking in the throat. The careless operator some- 
times ruptures the lungs or cuts a rib, which may lead to compli- 
cations at a later date, but this occurrence is very rare. A loss 
ranging from one to three per cent by death is a safe estimate. 

Marking Capons. — It is essential that all birds which have 
undergone the operation, whether successfully or not, should 
be plainly marked, so that there will be no possibility of " slips " 
getting into the breeding pens. Toe punching and leg banding 
are often done, but in either case there is danger of the mark 
becoming obscured or, in leg banding, lost. In commercial work 
it is the custom, immediately after the operation and before re- 
moving the bird, to sever the nail of the right middle toe. This 
slight wound heals almost immediately, causes no pain, and leaves 
a permanent mark, the end of the toe never growing out again. 
These toes are usually collected by the paid caponizer, and hung 
in a little box under his board, to serve as his record of the number 
of birds caponized. 

Treatment After the Operation. — The bird should be removed 
from the operating table, the proper way being to carry him by 
the wings, and placed in a clean, airy coop which will permit 
neither flying nor roosting, for the effort of flying to roost is apt 
to keep the wound open. Fresh water and plenty of soft feed 
should be immediately supplied. The birds will immediately 
begin to eat, and one would never imagine that a delicate opera- 



400 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

tion had just been performed. An abundance of feed and water 
should be kept before them for the first week after the operation, 
for they develop an enormous appetite as a result of the operation 
and the previous abstinence from feed. Two or three days after 
the operation the birds should be inspected to see if there are 
any wind puffs under the skin in the region of the wound, due to 
the formation of gases after it had healed. These should be 
reduced by pricking the skin with a needle or sharp-pointed knife 
and allowing the air to escape. With some birds it may be neces- 
sary to repeat this operation a number of times. At the end of 
two weeks the wound will be entirely healed, and the capon can 
be put permanently on range, and treated as any other growing 
bird where flesh growth is the object. 

Changes in Appearance and Characteristics. — After the opera- 
tion the disposition and external appearance of the birds seem 
to change. Their bodies increase in size very rapidly, but the 
combs and wattles entirely cease to grow, and they lose the power 
to crow. They become exceedingly tame and lazy, develop heavy 
and beautiful plumage, and the spurs cease to grow. When 
running with a mixed flock, they keep aloof from the roosters 
and hens and seek the company of little chicks. They may often 
be seen hovering the chicks. The more extensive capon producers 
claim caponizing is a preventive of disease, and large flocks of 
capons can run on limited range with no apparent ill effects. 
As a rule, they are strong, vigorous, and healthy, only requiring 
during development clean, light, and properly ventilated houses 
and regularity in feeding. 

Practice and Profits. — Enough has been said in the preced- 
ing pages of the possibilities and advantages to be derived from a 
more general practice of caponizing. It is earnestly recommended 
to the farmer and poultry raiser as a means of increasing profits 
and as an advertising medium by creating a demand for poultry 
meat of unexcelled quality. In a community of small poultn^ 
farmers it is possible to hire the work done by professionals, but 
if the poultryman has a great number of fowls he should do the 
work himself. 

The cost of feeding a capon to maturity, or for twelve months, 
is from seventy-five cents to one dollar, depending on condition 
and range. Add to this the cost of the operation — five cents — 
and the cost of the chick at hatching, and we have a total of 
ninety cents to one dollar and fifteen cents at most. Assuming 



CAPONS 



401 



an average weight of eight pounds for a year-old bird and a sell- 
ing price of thirty cents, we have a market value at killing time 
of two dollars and forty cents; this leaves a profit of over one 
dollar and twenty cents. But the price and weight may each be 
less. A comparison of profits from capons and cockerels, as shown 
in figure 184, proves the value of caponizing. 

Spaying. — By spaying is meant the removal of the ovaries 
or productive organs of the pullet or female in much the same 





Fig. 184. — The comparison of weights (cockerel 5% lbs., capon 7)4, lbs.) proves the advan- 
tage of caponizing. Both are from the same brood of Langshans, seven months old. 



manner as caponizing is performed. From a practical stand- 
point it will never become general, for the following reasons: 

The value of pullets for egg production is so high that it is 
doubtful if they would ever be as profitable if disposed of for meat. 

After the operation there is no pronounced change in charac- 
teristics, nor is there the rapid development of flesh seen in capons. 

It is almost impossible to remove the ovaries so completely 
that they will not again develop, — even with the greatest care 
and the use of caustics to kill any remaining tissue. 

Therefore the results of spaying are not such as to warrant 
its general practice. 
26 



402 BROILERS, ROASTERS, AND CAPONS 

REVIEW. 

1. Name five types of market poultry and tell which is in greatest demand. 

2. How does broiler raising rank as a branch of the poultry industry? 

3. Define a broiler. 

4. Give the market types of broilers. 

5. Outline broiler seasons. 

6. Give six features required in a desirable broiler. 

7. Which type of bird is best adapted to broiler raising? 

8. Outline the essential features in broiler management. 

9. Discuss broiler prices at different seasons. 

10. What is the relation between cost of production and profits? 

11. What is a fryer? 

12. What sections are noted for roaster growing? 

13. What is a roaster? Give the desirable features. 

14. Discuss the market types of roasters. 

15. What breeds are best adapted to roaster growing? 

16. Discuss roaster seasons and prices. 

17. What can you say of the capon industry? 

18. Give seven advantages of capons over cockerels for meat. 

19. Discuss market requirements and demand for capons. 

20. What is the proper age to caponize? Why? 

21. Describe the instruments necessary. 

22. How should the bird be prepared for the operation? 

23. Describe the operation in detail. 

24. What is a "slip"? 

25. Describe the resulting changes in the appearance of a capon. 

26. How should capons be marked? 

27. What is spaying? Why not profitable? 

References. — Feeding Experiments with Capons, New York Bulletin 53. 
Capons and Caponizing, by Robert R. Slocum, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 452. 
Capons for Kansas, by W. A. Lippincott, Kansas Circular 27. Capons, by 
O. M. Watson, South Carolina Bulletin 62. Capons and Caponizing, by F. L. 
Washburn, Oregon Bulletin 31. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING. 

Fattening. — The operation of fattening is distinctly a finish- 
ing or ripening process, to have the bird's flesh in the best possible 
condition for human consumption. The condition, when attained, 
may be perceived both externally and internally; externally, in 
the plumpness of the fowl and the color of the skin; internally, 
by the presence of enough oily or fatty tissue to make it delicious 
eating. There is always a demand for dressed poultry, whether 
good or poor. There is, however, rarely a time when the inferior 
product brings more than a very low price, and this often means 
loss. Birds of high quality, especially prepared for market, always 
jdeld a profit. 

When only a few birds are to be killed, it is doubtful whether 
extensive preparations for fattening will be found profitable; 
but when large numbers are marketed every year, a close study 
of the relation between weight, cost, and selling price will demon- 
strate to the poultryman the profit to be derived from systematic 
and careful fattening. These terms are used to describe dressed 
poultry : Thin, plump, and fat. Plump birds are by far in greatest 
demand at the highest prices. There is very little sale for exces- 
sively fat birds of any type. Thin birds are produced in great 
numbers on the general farms of the country, and are disposed of 
with no attempt to put them in condition. Such birds are not 
attractive when dressed and displayed, hence not in general de- 
mand, yet they are usually disposed of in large numbers at low 
prices to a trade that cannot afford to pay higher prices for a 
better product. Thin birds have a shrunken, knotted appearance 
and prominent bones; when cooked, unless very young birds, the 
flesh is tough and dry for want of fat. A large percentage of 
poultry marketed in America is unfinished and of inferior grade. 

Special Fattening Processes. — There are three distinct ways 
of finishing birds previous to killing. A choice depends upon the 
age of the bird and the quality of flesh desired. These methods 
are : Flock or pen fattening, crate fattening, and cramming. 

Flock or Pen Fattening. — This is the common method of fat- 
tening cockerels and fowls, although old hens usually do not 

403 



404 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

require much finishing, as it is natural for them to take on fat 
and to be plump and of good weight. With cockerels the custom is 
to confine them in small yards, usually in large numbers, the 
total number of cockerels in one pen running from ten up to one 
hundred. Their exercise is restricted by limiting the range, and 
they are fed often, corn constituting the bulk of the ration. In 
some instances wet mashes are given. In the majority of cases, 
cracked corn and wheat supplement a dry-mash which contains a 
large amount of corn meal and at least thirty per cent of meat. 
The rations fed under farm conditions vary greatly in different 
communities, according to the number of birds to be marketed. 

This method of pen or flock fattening is often applied to the 
finishing of broilers. As a rule, young broiler chickens are not 
finished, owing to their rapid growth and, consequently, their 
fine flesh. It is often profitable to vary the ration during the 
last week or two before killing, feeding skim milk and corn meal 
mashes plentifully with a larger allowance of meat; if they have 
been on range, comparatively close confinement during the last 
weeks is desirable. Usually, however, broilers grown in season 
are closely confined during the entire growing period, as out-of- 
door conditions do not allow them range. 

Crate Fattening. — This mode of fattening is used by large 
plants having a heavy output of poultry for meat, but its develop- 
ment is greatest in the large and special poultry-fattening and 
slaughter houses in the central and south-central sections of the 
country. These firms buy poorly nourished live poultry from the 
South and West, which is shipped to them by carloads. Then 
it is sorted and put through a special course of finishing, after 
which it is sold at a profit. When the improvement and profits 
resulting from crate fattening are clearly understood, this will 
doubtless be more generally practised among poultry producers, 
with the result that a higher quality of dressed poultry will be 
displayed at our larger markets. The methods here described 
are the ones in use in extensive fattening establishments. 

These fattening stations consist of buildings used exclusively 
for the fattening of chickens, and are usually operated in con- 
nection with large poultry and egg-packing houses. Such stations 
are generally found in poultry-producing centres, where the farmer 
sells his poultry in comparatively poor condition, provided there 
are facilities for shipping and marketing or for holding it in cold 
storage. These stations are usually located at or near railroad 



FATTENING 



405 



junctions, in order that stock for fattening can be secured from 
a large surrounding territory. 

Two types of crates are used, the stationary and the portable. 
These crates are usually constructed so that a number of them form 
a unit, each unit being called a battery. The stationary batteries 
are rapidly falling into disuse, and portable ones are taking their 
place, much less labor being required to operate the portable 
ones. They can be arranged so as to fit any room or building. An 
excellent feeding battery is shown in figure 185. It is constructed 
as follows : This battery is divided into eight coops, four tiers of 
two coops each, and holds eighty spring chickens or sixty-four 
hens. It is 2 feet 1 l A inches wide, and 5 feet 9 inches high. The 
slats in front are 1 % inches 
apart. Each set of slats is 
8M inches wide, and is fastened 
by buttons, so that it can be 
easily removed and a set of 
slats closer together or farther 
apart quickly inserted. As the 
chickens' heads vary consider- 
ably in size during the season, 
this adjustable front is neces- 
sary. The dropping pans are 
lM inches below the floors, 
which are made of heavy, 
square-mesh wire, roosting 
poles are 2 inches wide, M of an 
inch thick, and 2 feet 6 inches 
long. The first floor is 6 inches 
from the ground, and it is 15 inches from the wire floor to the 
top of each coop; thus each tier, including the dropping pans, is 
16% inches deep. The battery rolls on four wheels, two double- 
pivot wheels in front, and two wheels connected by a bar in the 
rear. The sliding doors on the sides are fitted with hooks which 
fasten into eyes on the battery. The whole battery is made of 
furring, 1% by % inches, covered with 2-inch-mesh wire and 
laths. The feeding troughs are ZYi inches across the top, inside 
measurement, and 3 inches from top to bottom, outside measure- 
ment. These troughs are held in place by flexible bent wires 
which yield if the troughs hit any obstacle, thus preventing break- 
age. A wire partition divides the battery into two equal parts. 




Fig. 185. — A portable battery of feeding 
coops, used in commercial crate fattening. The 
weighing, feeding, and moving of the birds can 
be done without taking them from the coops. 
(Photo by U. S. Bureau of Chemistry.) 



406 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

Care in Crate Fattening. — From six to ten birds, according 
to size, are placed in each division of the battery. They should 
be weighed when placed in the crates so that the gain can be de- 
termined. Many mixtures of grain have proved successful. The 
best rations are usually composed of corn meal and low-grade 
flour; about 60 per cent of the former and 40 per cent of the latter. 
Six per cent of tallow is sometimes added to this ration, with 
varying results. Grit is generally provided, especially if the birds 
are kept on feed for two weeks or more, and four pounds to each 
hundred birds are given twice a week. Clover or alfalfa meal, 
meat meal, blood meal, charcoal, and sometimes salt, are added 
to the ration, according to the ideas of various feeders, but their 
use is not essential. 

The excessive feeding of very concentrated rations often has 
the effect of making the birds pull feathers and pick at each 
other; they often keep at it until they have eaten much of the 
flesh of live chickens. In such cases reduce the concentration and 
substitute greens and a small amount of meat or blood meal. 

Milk or buttermilk is essential in all fattening rations. Milk 
in some form is used to soften the rations, and acts on the diges- 
tive processes, keeping the birds in good condition during forcing. 
If much milk is given, the amount of meat may be reduced. But- 
termilk and skim milk are generally used, and the milk may be 
either sweet or sour, but usually it is sour. The feed should be 
thoroughly mixed, either with a rake or a machine, according to 
the quantity, so that there will be no lumps or dry masses. The 
consistency should be about that of cream, or so that it will drip 
from the tip of a large wooden spoon. Chickens seem to prefer a 
thicker mixture, but it is doubtful if they get sufficient nourish- 
ment from it, for their hunger is much sooner satisfied than when 
compelled to eat the thin one. The percentage of milk to use in 
the mixture depends upon the grains, the weather, and method of 
feeding; about 60 per cent seems to give the best results. Suc- 
cessful fattening depends largely upon whether the feeder watches 
his birds and notes their condition. The first two or three feeds 
should be light and the amount gradually increased until the 
birds can be given all they will eat up clean. 

The birds are usually fed from two to five times daily, but 
three is best for the small or amateur feeder. The use of milk has 
a tendency to produce white flesh, which in certain markets is 
not as desirable as yellow; this, however, is merely a matter of 



FATTENING 407 

choice, not of quality. Birds specially fattened are usually dressed. 
Small lots are shipped direct to the point of consumption. In the 
case of large feeding stations, they are put into cold storage and 
held for future shipment. The shrinkage in dressing is approxi- 
mately 14 per cent. 

When crate fattening is the method, care must be exercised 
to keep the crates in well-ventilated buildings, for fresh air is 
essential to the process. The coops must be cleaned regularly 
every other day, and disinfected at least every week. Careful 
records should be kept of the feed consumed and the gain in 
weight during the feeding period, to determine whether or not 
the practice is profitable, and to what extent. 

Extensive experiments with this method of fattening, made by 
the United States Department of Agriculture, led to the following 
conclusions : 

The Plymouth Rocks and other general-utility breeds can be 
fattened at less cost than the Mediterranean breeds, such as 
Leghorns. 

Chickens of the same breed vary greatly in the amount of 
flesh they put on during the fattening period. 

Where a number of birds are to be fattened, the use of por- 
table coops or batteries is found most profitable; less labor is 
required, and the birds turn out in better condition. 

Low-grade wheat flour is one of the most economical feeds, 
being far superior to oatmeal. 

It will take approximately from three to three and one-half 
pounds of grain to produce one pound of flesh; hence the feed 
cost averages six to eight cents for each pound gained. The cost 
of labor per pound of increase is from one to three cents, according 
to the number and arrangement of the pens; therefore the total 
cost of a pound of gain, counting feed and labor, is approximately 
seven to eleven cents. 

Less expensive gain in flesh is usually made by short feed- 
ing periods ranging from seven to ten days. 

Hens do badly under crate fattening, and it is usually un- 
profitable to attempt it; if fattening is necessary, the flock method 
will give the best results at small cost. 

Records should always be kept so that the gains can be esti- 
mated; for it often happens that birds are carried through in small 
flocks by inexperienced feeders at a loss not only of money but in 
weight as well. 



408 



FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 



Cramming means the introduction of feed into the bird's 
crop by physical force, with no aid or desire on the part of the 
bird. There are three distinct methods of cramming, — namely, 
hand, funnel, and machine cramming. 

Hand cramming is rarely resorted to in this country, but is 
done quite extensively on small plants in England. The method 
is to place feed in the bird's mouth in the form of a pellet, force 
it down with the finger, and then work it into the crop by pressing 
the hand downward on the outside of the gullet. It is occasionally 




Fig. 186. — Common type of 
funnel used in cramming. The 
point is rounded to prevent in- 
jury to the bird's throat. 




Fig. 187. — Cramming machine 
used extensively in Europe, but as 
yet very little in America. 



done in this country in the fattening of geese, but is so laborious 
that it is impracticable. 

Funnel cramming is a method not extensively employed in 
America, but it is more effective and more rapid than hand cram- 
ming. In this process the feed is mixed into a thin paste of about 
the consistency of cream, and poured through a long-necked funnel 
sc shaped that it will not injure the bird when passed down the 
gullet until the lower end enters the crop (Fig. 186). On insert- 
ing it care must be taken not to choke the bird, and only enough 
feed should be introduced to fill the crop. 

Machine cramming is widely practised in Europe, but not to 
a great extent in this country as yet (Fig. 187). It consists in 



KILLING 409 

forcing feed into the crop with a specially constructed machine. 
The feed is placed in a metallic vessel or cylinder, and then by a 
plunger, operated by foot power, is forced into a tube which is 
passed down the bird's gullet and into the crop. With practice 
this can be done very rapidly, and, when done by skilful operators, 
tends to produce the choicest quality of flesh. The development 
of artificial feeding in this country will depend upon an increased 
demand for a superior quality of meat. The profits from machine- 
fed poultry are large, even counting the increased cost of labor, 
because of the great gain in weight and improved quality of meat. 

Regardless of the method practised, the following points 
should be borne in mind: The object is constant growth; restricted 
exercise; no overfeeding; birds allowed to become hungry be- 
tween feedings; period not too long, or loss will follow. 

Killing. — If dressed poultry is to reach the consumer in the 
best possible condition as regards flavor, wholesomeness, appear- 
ance, and perfect state of preservation, it must be properly killed. 
Much of the loss resulting from the shipping and storage of dressed 
poultry that soon spoils is due to improper sticking and bleeding 
and to neglect before killing. 

Preparation for Killing. — In the preservation of good market 
qualities in a well-fed fowl or chicken, it is well to starve it for 
twenty-four hours before killing, supplying it, however, during 
this time with fresh, clean water. This period of fasting empties 
the crop, and partially the intestines also. A distended crop 
makes the bird look unattractive, and the contents will discolor 
the flesh during storage. The same is true of the intestines; if 
full, a discoloration soon appears, and the contents offer a fertile 
field in which putrefactive bacteria may grow and multiply when 
taken from storage, or even during display. 

Methods of Killing. — The essential point in slaughtering is 
to empty the blood-vessels, and to do this in such a way as to 
facilitate the plucking of the feathers. With dry picking this 
is of special importance. It is estimated that fully thirty per 
cent of all poultry shipped into the larger cities is improperly 
bled, and much of it in such poor condition as to be retailed at 
a loss ranging from two to five cents a pound, when compared with 
similar birds which had been well bled and are in good order. 
Insufficient bleeding not only gives to the carcass a bad appear- 
ance, but makes it spoil quickly, the flesh loses its firmness sooner, 
and its flavor is not so good. The common odor of stale flesh, and 



410 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

later of putrefaction, is soon perceptible, and in every way the 
product is more perishable. 

There are three distinct methods of killing poultry, — dis- 
locating the neck, sticking and beheading. 

Dislocation. — Neck dislocation is not very common except 
in the case of squabs. It consists in holding the bird's head just 
back of the jawbone, with the right hand, while the left grasps 
the body at the shoulders ; the neck is bent on the back and twisted 
or turned about three-quarters of the way around, then extended 
quickly and with considerable force. This quick rotary movement 
dislocates the upper vertebra at the base of the skull, rupturing 
the spinal column and causing instant death. The advantage 
of this method is its rapidity and cleanliness, but an objection 
to its general adoption is the fact that it does not permit free 
bleeding, and this is necessary to produce a well-dressed specimen 
which will keep a long time. 

Sticking. — The method known as sticking consists in the 
severing of the arteries of the neck through the mouth, making 
no outside cut whatsoever. When the feathers are to be removed 
by scalding, the bird is merely bled to death ; but if dry picking is 
to be done, there are two procedures, — namely, the severing of an 
artery in the neck to cause bleeding and the sticking of the brain 
to paralyze the muscles of the feathers. 

The process of sticking can be briefly described as follows 
(Fig. 188): 

1. When ready to kill, grasp the bird by the bony prominence 
of the skull just back of the angles of the jaw, being careful not 
to let the fingers touch the neck, as this might cause pressure 
upon the artery and check the free flow of blood. 

2. Make a cut with a small, sharp-pointed knife on the right side 
of the roof of the mouth where the bones of the skull terminate. 

3. Brain for dry picking by forcing the knife through the 
groove which runs along the median line of the roof of the mouth 
until it touches the skull midway between the eyes. The point of 
the blade should then be moved backward and forward to rupture 
the nerve tissue, thus paralyzing the bird, yet not causing instan- 
taneous death. This latter operation is sometimes performed by 
thrusting the knife under the eye at such an angle that the point 
will touch the skull in the same place, — midway between the eyes. 
The outside cut, however, disfigures the bird, and is no better 
than the inside thrust. The position of hands and knife are shown 
in figure 188. 



KILLING 



411 




cause relaxation 'ci^l^SiCtot ^ °' ?"*** *» ^ '° 

D, plucking main tail and win. feathers V hi r H . removed without tearing the skin; 

pin feathers, called "pinnin- " fathers, E, bird roughed and ready for pinning; F, removing 



412 



FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 



4. The best knife blade to use is one not more than two inches 
long and one-fourth of an inch wide, with a sharp point, a straight 
cutting edge, and a thin, flat handle. Figure 189 shows the kind 
of knife recommended by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. The knife should be stiff, so that it does not bend; .of 
the best steel, so that it can be kept sharp and will not be nicked 
in braining; and the handle and blade should be in one piece. 
Such a knife, with the aid of an emery wheel or grindstone and 
oilstone, can be made from an 8-inch flat file. 

To make this knife, the handle of the file should first be ground 
off. Then the blade should be shaped from the small end of the 
file as shown in figure 189. The curve of the point should slope 
from the back downward. A blade of this shape reaches the 
blood-vessels to be cut more surely than does a blade on. which 



V. 



WW 




y 




Fig. 189. — An excellent killing knife can be made from an ordinary file. 



the point curves upward. After the blade is made, the ridges 
on the file should be ground down, leaving just enough roughness 
to prevent the knife slipping in the hand of the killer. The length 
of the knife over all should be seven inches. 

Before sticking, the bird is usually suspended by its feet, 
the head down and on a level with the waist of the operator. A 
looped cc/d is frequently used to hold the bird; but a better plan 
is to bend a piece of wire into the shape shown in figure 188, A, 
the bird's legs being caught in the loops at the bottom. This 
device is quickly and easily fastened in place, and it holds the 
bird securely with its legs spread, thus facilitating picking. 

Instead of sticking the brain, it was formerly the custom to 
stun the bird, and partially paralyze it, by striking the head 
with a piece of wood; but this method is being generally super- 
seded by cutting and sticking. With large, old birds, stunning is 
sometimes resorted to in order to stop their struggles. 



PLUCKING 413 

A number of special appliances have been designed with the 
idea of systematizing and facilitating the killing and plucking of 
chickens, and one of the most popular of these is known as the 
Cornell killing and picking box. 

Beheading.— The practice of beheading chickens is at present 
largely confined to farms where one or only a few birds are killed 
for family use or retail trade. Poultry killed in this way is not 
in demand at the larger markets; it does not keep well and is 
unattractive when displayed for sale. The customary way is to 
grasp the bird by the legs and wings, — brought together and held 
in the same hand, — the head and neck being placed on a heavy 
piece of wood or chopping-block, and the neck severed about one 
inch from the base of the skull with a sharp hatchet. The ac- 
curacy of the blow can be assured if the head is held firmly on 
the block by means of large nails driven in the edge of the block 
about one inch apart, the neck being placed between these, and 
the body drawn away from them until the skull and jawbones 
are against the nails. This distends the neck and does not permit 
the bird to flop or move its head. 

After beheading, the body should be held firmly and the neck 
pressed against an old piece of burlap to prevent spattering until 
the bird has become quiet. For home consumption this method 
is quick, and, if the fowl is scalded and meat cooked immediately, 
the plan is a good one. The market objects to a beheaded bird, 
on account of its spoiling sooner. Besides, the head indicates the 
breed and sex, also the condition of the bird when killed. Behead- 
ing, therefore, is not permissible in the killing of dressed poultry 
for shipping and storage. 

Plucking. — There are two distinct methods for removing 
feathers, — dry picking and scalding. 

Dry picking consists in plucking the feathers immediately 
after sticking, without immersing the body in hot water, and 
is called for by nearly all markets, especially the wholesale 
trade. The advantages of this method may be summed up 
as follows: (1) Better preservation. (2) Better appearance of 
the finished carcass. (3) It is possible to save the feathers, 
and have them in better condition for sale. (4) There is no 
danger of ruining the meat by parboiling it with the hot water 
used in scalding. 

Dry picking is an art, and perfection in it calls for consider- 
able practice. The knack of grasping the feathers and removing 



414 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

them rapidly in large clusters, without tearing or injuring the 
skin, can only be acquired by learning the principles involved 
and by the constant application of these to the work until the 
knack is acquired. 

The usual custom is to pluck the feathers first from the parts 
of the body which tear the easiest, the order of plucking being 
as follows: Breast, neck, shoulder, and thighs, these small feath- 
ers being tossed into a barrel at the side of the picker; next the 
large wing and tail feathers are removed, and usually thrown on 
the floor and discarded, as they are of little commercial value. 
The small or fluffy feathers are next removed, care being taken 
when plucking not to bruise the skin with the fingers or nails. 
The feathers are grasped between the thumb and forefinger with 
just enough pressure to pull them out. The picker becomes 
accustomed to holding feathers just tight enough to let them slip 
through his fingers before the skin tears. 

After the feathers are removed the bird is said to be " roughed " 
(Fig. 188, E). Next it must be gone over and the pinfeathers 
extracted. This is usually accomplished with a knife, the small 
pins and broken feathers being grasped between the knife blade 
and the thumb, the knife being passed over the skin in a direction 
opposite to that in which the pinfeathers grow. 

In large poultry-picking establishments the work of " rough- 
ing " is usually done by one group of pickers, and the " pinning " 
by another; thus a larger number can be turned out, for "pinning " 
takes practically as long as picking, and yet does not require as 
much practice and can be done by cheaper labor. On the average 
farm where one man does all the work, one hundred birds is a 
good, ten-hour day's work (Fig. 190). 

There are two modes of picking, — standing and lap picking, — 
the former being more generally used. Lap picking is quite com- 
mon in New England; the operator sits beside a box and holds 
the bird in his lap with its head between the box and his right 
leg, the fine feathers being thrown into the box while picking. 
The greatest objection to this method is the danger of bruising 
the bird's flesh by rubbing its skin against the legs. This can be 
averted by suspending the bird. 

Scalding. — This method of plucking fowls is quite generally 
used on farms throughout the country, and especially for retail 
trade. Undoubtedly it is the easiest way to remove feathers, 
and, if properly done, does not materially injure the bird for 



PLUCKING 415 

immediate consumption. But the inferior grade of much of 
the scalded product put on the market results in much criticism 
of the practice. 

In scalding poultry two essential factors must be remembered : 
(1) Have a vessel large enough so that the bird can be easily and 
completely immersed. (2) Have the water at the desired tem- 
perature, neither too hot nor too cold. The water should be 




Fig. 190. — Dry picking squab broilers. Where a large number are to be killed the 
work should be systematized, each man having a special work to do. A, Sticking; B, rough- 
ing; C, pinning. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) 

below the boiling point, — at about 200° F., — and the temperature 
taken by means of a hot-water thermometer. 

If too cold it will not loosen the feathers, and they will be as 
hard or harder to remove than by dry picking. If a pail is used 
and boiling water is poured into the pail, the reduction in tem- 
perature due to the cold pail will make the water just about 
right to use immediately. The bird should be taken by the feet 
and thoroughly soused up and down in the water until the feathers 
are all ruffled and wet, clear to the skin (Fig. 191). If the bird 



416 



FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 



is to be marketed with the head on, it is best to hold both the 
head and feet, keeping the head and neck feathers out of the water. 
Full fluffy-feathered birds must be held in the water longer than 
thin or sparsely feathered birds. After scalding, the bird should 
be allowed to drain before picking. The method of picking de- 
pends upon the four following conditions: 

1. Age of the bird. The general practice is to scald fowls, 
since scalding has less effect on their appearance and preserva- 
tion than on young birds. 






,.,.--■ ' ; *^"'' 


» <* ' ' 


' wPPlf^f^ ^^ 


■ i 


< *" 


^■K^:f>.. ' * } ■«. 


^"^fsj 






7 ^Bs 



Fig. 191. — Scalding before picking is a method adapted only to retail or hom e trade. 
A, The bird, after bleeding, is grasped by the head and feet and immersed in hot water; B, the 
scalded birds are hung to drain before plucking. (Photo by Oakland Poultry Farm.) 



2. Purpose for which the birds are to be used. Birds which 
are to be cut up and used for stewing or for chicken pies can be 
scalded, as the damage matters less than when they are wanted 
for roasting. 

3. Length of time before cooking. When they are to be 
immediately cooked, as is the ease with birds for the home table 
or a near-by retail trade, there will probably be no objection to 
or discrimination against properly scalded "birds. 

4. Market requirements. When to scald and when to dry 



DRESSING 417 

pick should be determined largely by the demand of the market 
to which the birds are shipped. If market quotations show a 
preference for dry-picked birds, then dry picking should be pre- 
ferred to scalding. 

Plumping or Cooling. — As soon as the birds are picked by 
either method, it is a common practice to immerse them in a tub 
or pail of cold water for at least an hour. This accomplishes 
several objects: (1) It removes the animal heat from the bird, 
making it keep longer by retarding decomposition. (2) It also 
lessens the excessive red color of comb and wattles, and gives 
them a better appearance. (3) The entrance of water into the 
pores makes the flesh plump and distends the skin. 

Whenever possible, dry-picked birds should be allowed to 
cool in dry air. Cold weather makes this possible for all. In 
summer it is done by refrigeration, but this practice is limited 
to large commercial establishments. It is well first to immerse 
them a few minutes in water at about blood heat, then wash the 
shanks and toes to remove dirt, take the clot of blood from 
the mouth, and wash all blood from face and head. After 
washing they are usually immersed for one hour in ice water, 
and then hung up to drain before packing. When killing, plan 
to leave sufficient time for them to cool before packing for 
shipment. In warm weather ice is necessary during transit, so 
they need not be drained. If poultry is to be shipped a con- 
siderable distance, and is cooled down thoroughly before ship- 
ment, the longer it will stay cool and the better will be the 
condition upon receipt. 

Shaping. — The process of shaping improves the appearance of 
the bird by forcing its breast forward and making it look full of 
meat. It may be done during cooling if the process is refrigeration. 
Although not general in this country, shaping is extensively done 
in Europe. The method is to place the birds in wooden frames or 
V-shaped troughs so that, when pressure is applied from above, 
the flesh is forced into the desired part and stays there after 
cooling and hardening. With good, well-grown, plump-breasted 
birds little if any benefit is to be derived from the process. At best 
it will improve the appearance only of those birds which are 
naturally thin or not in prime condition when killed, giving them 
a more plump appearance. 

Dressing. — The necessity and manner of dressing depend 
upon the market and the fowl. When poultry is marketed through 
27 



418 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

wholesale channels, it should never be drawn or cut. Experiments 
prove that undrawn poultry decomposes more slowly than does 
poultry which has been wholly or partly drawn. Full-drawn 
poultry — that is, with head and feet removed as well — decomposes 
the more rapidly. Drawing also mars the appearance of the bird 
for display in the markets, and there is greater danger of its be- 
coming fly-blown. The work of dressing is left to the middle 
man to perform, in accordance with the customer's requirements. 
When plucking for the wholesale market, — for example, broilers, 
roasters, and fowls, — all the feathers are removed except a few 
around the neck just back of the head. In the case of capons, 
the neck, thigh, tail, and wing feathers are left on the bird. This 
is the characteristic capon plucking, and distinguishes them from 
cockerels, for the feathers are left on those parts which show the 
distinctive feminine or capon plumage. When dressing for the 
home table or a restricted retail trade, it is usually desired that 
the birds be ready for cooking, and the following methods are 
common for broilers and roasters. 

In preparing broilers so they will look attractive for a private 
trade, they should be carefully plucked and the legs and head cut 
off. Then with a heavy knife or cleaver cut each side of the 
entire length of the backbone, severing the ribs. These incisions 
should meet at the neck and just below the vent. It is then pos- 
sible to remove the neck, backbone, and entire intestines with no 
other cutting. In the case of large broilers which are to be halved, 
the breast should also be cut lengthwise in the centre with a 
cleaver or meat saw. The giblets should be cleaned, and accom- 
pany the dressed carcass. 

Preparing roasters. — (Fig. 192) For fine trade proceed as fol- 
lows : Singe the bird after it is cool and thoroughly dry by holding 
it over a flame from burning straw. Be careful not to blacken 
the skin; this is why paper is objectionable. 

1. Remove the shanks and the tough sinews which extend 
through the legs and impair the quality of the drumstick. To 
remove these sinews run a knife down the back of the shank bone, 
between it and the sinews. Place this cut over a hook or big 
nail and pull gradually; in large old birds it may be necessary to 
place the hook under each sinew, one at a time. The sinew will 
break at the upper end, and can then be removed with the shank, 
leaving the thigh free. 

2. Pull the skin of the neck toward the body and sever the 



DRESSING 419 

neck with a sharp cleaver about midway between head and body. 
Thus, when the skin is released, about one inch of free neck skin 
will remain, to cover the cut bone. 

3. Make a cut about two inches long at the left side of the 
breast well up toward the neck, and remove the crop, being care- 
ful not to increase the size of the opening. 

4. Turn the bird with the tail toward the operator and make 
a longitudinal cut about two inches in length from the vent 
toward the point of the breastbone. Insert the forefinger and 
remove the tissue and fat which cover the intestines. When they 




Fig. 192. — Roasters properly dressed for retail trade. (Photo by U. R. Fishel.) 

are fully exposed, hook the finger into a loop of the intestines, 
and cautiously pull them out, taking" care not to injure any part. 
When they are all removed, make a circular cut around the vent, 
and remove it with the intestines. 

5. Next remove all internal organs, such as the gizzard, liver, 
heart, lungs, spleen, and reproductive organs, taking care not to 
enlarge the opening. 

6. Next wash the bird thoroughly with warm water followed 
by cold water. 

7. Open gizzard and heart, wash thoroughly, and, with the 
liver, replace in the body cavity. 

8. Take clean white cotton string and tie the skin of the neck 
over the end of the neck. 

9. Lay the wings flat, and secure them to the sides by a string 



420 FATTENING, KILLING, AND DRESSING 

passed twice around the whole body, then fasten; this holds them 
secure while cooking. 

10. Tie a piece of string around the hock joints, leaving them 
about two inches apart, one on each side of the keel; then bring 
them down, and fasten securely to the tail. 

11. If desired, immerse the bird in clear cold water for one 
hour; this will set the muscles firmly. After draining and drying 
the bird is ready for the customer. 

Fowls are usually cut up for stews or meat pies, but this work 
is rarely done by the producer. 

Boning. — It is sometimes desirable to dress an extra fancy 
product which retails for an exceptionally high price. In such 
cases it is customary to remove all or most of the bones from the 
fowl through an opening in front of the shoulder. The flesh is 
afterward stuffed and roasted like an ordinary roaster; but when 
serving one can cut right through the entire bird, and get light 
and dark meat and dressing at one cut. This process is termed 
" boning," is rather difficult, and can only be successfully done 
after considerable practice. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is the object of fattening? 

2. Give three methods of fattening. 

3. What is flock fattening, and when is it used? 

4. What is crate fattening? 

5. To what extent is crate fattening employed? 

6. Describe a desirable fattening crate. 

7. Discuss in detail methods employed in commercial crate fattening. 

8. What is cramming? Give three methods. 

9. Discuss cramming as practised in America. 

10. What is the object in forced feeding? Give essentials. 

11. How does proper killing affect the quality? 

12. Why should the bird be starved before killing? 

13. Give three methods of killing. 

14. How is the neck dislocated? 

15. Describe the process of sticking. 

16. Describe a desirable type of killing knife. 

17. Describe a good method of suspending before killing. 

18. Describe a good method of beheading. 

19. Give two methods of plucking. 

20. Give the advantages of dry picking. 

21. Describe the procedure in dry picking. 

22. Describe the process of scalding poultry. 

23. What four factors should determine whether to dry pick or scald? 



REVIEW 421 

24. What is the object of cooling? 

25. How can the birds be shaped? 

26. Describe two methods of dressing broilers for retail or home trade. 

27. Describe the dressing of a roaster for retail trade. 

References. — Fattening Poultry, by Alfred R. Lee, U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry Bulletin 140. How to Kill and Bleed Market Poultry, by Pennington 
and Betts, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 61. The Comparative Rate 
of Decomposition in Drawn and Undrawn Market Poultry, by M. E. Penning- 
ton, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 70. Practical Suggestions for the 
Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs, by M. E. Pennington, U. S. Bureau 
of Chemistry Circular 98. Trussing and Boning Chicken for Fancy Trade, 
by Wm. A. Lippincott, Iowa Bulletin 125. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
MARKETING THE PRODUCTS. 

The successful poultryman must not only produce first-class 
poultry products, but he must be a capable salesman and man of 
business as well. The maximum number of eggs may be produced 
during the winter; but unless the poultryman understands busi- 
ness principles and market requirements, big profits cannot be 
realized. Whatever increases or decreases the ultimate selling 
value to the producer is worthy of careful consideration. 

The Salesman. — -When poultry raising is conducted on a 
limited scale, the poultryman himself is both producer and sales- 
man ; if, however, the business is large and there is a group of poul- 
try raisers in a community, they may be able to cooperate in 
marketing with good results. In such case if an expert salesman 
is allowed to handle the market end of the business, he will dis- 
pose of the products in such a way as to get the largest returns 
for the producer and at the same time increase the demand. The 
successful salesman must, nevertheless, have some experience in 
poultty production, for this makes him a better and more intelli- 
gent seller. A good salesman must know how to advertise, if he is 
advantageously to dispose of a variety of products offered for sale. 
He must drive a good bargain and be shrewd yet honest in all his 
dealings, if he is to retain the confidence of his best customers. 

For the small poultryman, and especially the farm poultryman, 
the most important requisite is that he keep accurately posted as 
to market prices, fluctuations, and conditions. The easiest way to 
increase an income without greatly increasing expenses is to add to 
the profits by raising products of high quality, and marketing them 
at the right time and place in a neat and attractive manner. 

The Markets. — The expense of marketing poultry products is 
comparatively small, as they are of high value, small in bulk, 
and can be shipped a considerable distance with little shrinkage. 
The high-class trade in the large cities is the most profitable, and, 
where one can ship a guaranteed quantity during the entire year, 
or the season, of such product as broilers, he can safely compete in 
this market, but where his output is limited it is a waste of time. 
There is often a home market which, with a little care, can be 
422 



THE MARKETS 423 

developed satisfactorily and will pay the small producer much 
better than the larger city trade. 

A great variety of markets are open to the poultryman, and, 
according to his location and production, he may choose any one 
of the following methods: (1) Selling direct to the consumer; (2) 
selling direct to the retailer; (3) shipping to commission merchants. 

Selling direct to the consumer insures the largest revenue, as 
all expense of commission and extra handling is eliminated. This 
market is usually limited, unless one lives near a small city or 
village, in which case he can generally build up a retail route 
which will take his entire output. A disadvantage is the amount 
of time consumed in taking orders and distributing. To determine 
whether or not this method pays best, the time spent in dis- 
tribution should be balanced against the lower price and extra 
expense of commission when shipping by the third method, the 
cost of production being in each case the same. 

The most satisfactory way of selling direct to consumers is 
to supply hotels, restaurants, and clubs, as they usually contract 
for the entire output and are willing to pay a good price, and it 
is much easier to ship the entire output to one place at certain 
specified times than to spend time and labor in disposing of it 
among many small consumers. This last method offers an ex- 
cellent chance of advertising, — an advantage to both the poultry- 
man and the purchaser of the products. 

Selling Direct to Retailer. — Often one can sell both eggs and 
dressed poultry direct to some retail grocer, who is glad to get 
them and to pay a good price. Knowing they are perfectly fresh, 
he can sell them to his high-class trade and develop a good mar- 
ket for the poultryman. It may be necessary to go to a distant 
city or distribution point to find his market, but it will always 
pay when once secured. 

Shipping to Commission Merchants. — The easiest and simplest 
way in which to dispose of the bulk of poultry products is through 
the commission merchant for sale in the open market. In iso- 
lated cases the merchant can perhaps secure a special market 
for a guaranteed product, and this is becoming easier each year. 
But by this method the cost of marketing is very high and the 
price realized is the lowest. The commission, transportation, 
cartage, and, in most cases, loss by breakage, are always charged 
to the shipper. The commission usually amounts to five per 
cent of the gross receipts. 



424 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

If one has a large output and can ship through a commission 
house which makes a specialty of high-grade products, he can 
usually secure prices much above the market quotations, — pro- 
vided his shipments are always regular and of high quality. Most 
commission houses are on the alert for such products and will 
give the shipper the best of service. 

The exact market to select depends, then, upon the amount 
and character of products for sale. The wholesale market is best 
adapted to poultry enterprises with a large and regular output, 
which are located at a considerable distance from the point of 
distribution and consumption. The retail trade, on the other 
hand, is especially suitable for the poultryman with a limited 
supply of good products. He can create a strong demand for these 
products at such a price as to yield a profit on his output. 

Relative Returns. — Receipts and net profit are always much 
higher when the products are sold direct to the consumer, although 
the aggregate profits may not be great, owing to the limited de- 
mand, hence limited sales. 

Returns, hence net profits, are lowest when the products 
are sold at wholesale through commission houses; but, owing to 
the great demand, there is more chance of a high total profit, 
provided the shipments are large. The sale of products directly 
to the retail store probably nets the highest selling price and the 
largest revenue in proportion to the labor required in packing 
and distribution. 

Where the producer can make a contract with prominent and 
reliable retail stores for a fine product, the demand for his goods 
among the patrons of that store, if in a large consuming centre, 
will become almost limitless. This mode of marketing cuts out 
two of the middle men through whose hands most products sold 
at wholesale must pass, hence yields greater profit to the pro- 
ducer and seller, and the product reaches the consumer more 
quickly and in better condition. 

The following prices show the average received for eggs mark- 
eted through the common channels of trade and by direct selling. 
These prices are merely comparative: 

Huckster ■ 20 cents, trade. 

Grocer 23 cents, trade. 

Wholesale buyer. 21 cents, cash. 

Retail trade 27 cents, cash. 

Fancy trade 30 cents, cash. 



FROM PRODUCER TO CONSUMER 



425 



It is difficult to realize that, with a small or medium-sized 
flock, a slightly increased selling price for eggs per dozen through- 
out the year will result in a very decided total profit. For example, 
150 hens laying 1,800 dozens of eggs, selling at 18 cents per dozen, 
will produce an additional profit of $36 when the selling price of 
each dozen is increased only two cents. 



■WBOEESAZE ROUTE 



RETAIL ROUTE 



(A) 





PRODUCER 




/ 


\ 


COUNTRY 
COLLECTOR 


\ 






\ 


CODNTRT 
STORE 








1 


WHOLESALE 
BUYER 


/ 



RRODUCER 



(n s RETAIL, 
IM STORE 




COMMISSION 
MERCHANT 



CONSUMER 



JOBBER 



RETAIL 
STORE 



CONSUMER 



Fig. 193. — Chart showing the courses through which eggs may pass in going from the 
producer to the consumer. A, The course taken by the great bulk of the "western" product 
in reaching the eastern markets; B, the course taken by the eastern output in reaching New 
York and other large centres of distribution; C, direct selling through the retail store; D, 
the hotel and restaurant trade; E, products going direct from producer to consumer. 



From Producer to Consumer. — It is interesting to note the 
many channels of trade and the great number of hands through 
which every shipment may and usually does pass before it 
reaches the consumer. Figure 193 is a diagram portraying the 
different courses which poultry products may take. 



426 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

The doing away with much of this unnecessary handling will 
reduce the ultimate cost of the product for the consumer, and the 
quality at point of consumption will be better. 

Customers' Interests. — To do justice to both, a good sales- 
man must take the viewpoint of the consumer as well as that of 
the producer; and, in order to do this, customers may be arbi- 
trarily divided into five well-defined classes, according to their 
financial standing, as follows: (1) Poor, (2) of moderate means, 
(3) high class, (4) wealthy, (5) hotels and restaurants. 

It is evident at a glance that the quality of products demanded 
by these five classes will vary considerably. The well-to-do con- 
sumer demands and is willing to pay for a high-class product, 
whereas the poorer customer with limited means will purchase 
a lower quality for less money. The poorer customer purchases 
but a small amount, while the higher class of trade will buy a 
much larger quantity. 

There is a marked variation according to the season, the 
poorer classes demanding products at the season of abundant 
supply when the prices are correspondingly low, while the wealthier 
classes and hotel trade will demand and gladly pay a higher price 
for a product out of its natural season. 

All customers, regardless of their financial standing, have 
the same personal interest at heart, and are governed by the 
same thought when purchasing, — namely, to get the largest 
possible quantity of the best quality of product available for 
the money. These interests may be classified under the follow- 
ing six headings: 

Quality, price, supply, accessibility, systematic delivery, re- 
sponsibility of salesman. 

Quality is the first requisite, and may be estimated by the 
following factors: Freshness, whether in dressed poultry or eggs; 
care in handling, from producer to point of consumption; whole- 
someness, which means absence of any taint; type of egg as to 
size and color; weight, whether of eggs or meat; method of pro- 
duction; price, in so far as it represents quality. 

Price. — Price is a consideration with all classes, but the actual 
purchasing power of money is estimated differently by these 
different groups, according to the amount on hand for their pur- 
pose. To the producer, the price depends upon variations in 
quality; shortage or abundance; competition, both in selling and 
buying; the middle man's profits, which vary according to the 



CUSTOMERS' INTERESTS 427 

number of hands through which the product has passed; cost of 
production; and cost of handling, which varies with the market 
and manner of fitting for market. 

Supply. — In many ways the supply of poultry products in 
various markets is affected by the following: Quality; the higher 
the quality the less the supply; variations in amount of products, 
such as eggs, being produced in great numbers, while with capons 
and turkeys, for example, the production is very limited. The 
source of supply very often affects the amount of a given product 
in certain markets according to the distance from place of pro- 
duction and size of producing plant. The amount of capital in- 
vested in production and distribution affects the total supply, 
especially during seasons of limited output. The extent to which 
business is carried on in a community determines largely the 
available supply of products handled. 

Accessibility. — This is one of the chief factors from the con- 
sumer's standpoint, for if large quantities of first-class products 
are in the vicinity, yet not readily accessible, they are of no value. 
Distance from point of consumption, proximity of reserve sup- 
plies, telephone and railroad connections, mail facilities, — all 
play an important part in .bringing producer, middle man, and 
consumer closer together. 

Systematic Delivery.- — The customer desires regular and sys- 
tematic supply, whether it be eggs or dressed poultry, and this 
supply is affected by the location of the distributing point, 
express rates, method and regularity of final delivery to cus- 
tomer. The exact method of delivery varies according to the 
customer. 

Responsibility of Salesman. — The ultimate seller has the re- 
sponsibility of delivering goods to the consumer that will be 
satisfactory and thus keep up the demand for these goods. His 
ability to please the customer will depend largely on his distance 
from the consumer, his business methods, care in filling orders, 
financial standing, acquaintance with customers, and amount of 
business handled. 

The consumer is a valuable partner in a profitable poultry 
trade, and the salesman who caters to the interests of the con- 
sumer will not only increase the demand for his products, but can 
demand — and will be gladly paid by the customer — a price so 
much higher that it will more than cover the time and expense 
involved. 



428 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



TRADE IN EGGS FOR HATCHING. 



Eggs are marketed for two purposes, — for human food and 
for hatching. When marketing them for breeding purposes four 
important points must be considered, — namely, securing the mar- 
ket, method of shipping, chance of fertility, and value of guarantee. 

Securing the Market. — If a large number are to be sold, 
the market is usually secured by systematic advertising. Where 
the breeder has an established reputation, which his birds have 
maintained for years by winning prizes at shows, and there 
are pleased customers in all parts of the country, there is little 
need of advertising. High-class eggs for breeding purposes call 
for special markets and enormous expense in marketing. The 
output must be disposed of by making a great many small ship- 
ments to many customers. In marketing eggs for food all the 
output, if desired, can be shipped regularly and in considerable 
quantity to the same customer. To counterbalance the labor 
and heavy expense of marketing eggs for breeding purposes, an 
exceedingly high price is usually received for such eggs. 

Method of Shipping. — In shipping eggs for hatching, chill- 
ing or overheating must be avoided, also breaking or unnecessary 
jarring. The usual method is to pack them in ordinary market 
baskets, pasteboard containers being first put in the basket; after 
the eggs are placed in these, the whole layer is filled with bran 
or dry sawdust to prevent jarring or cracking. Eggs thus packed 
are much more likely to reach their destination safely than when 
they are shipped in heavy and tight wooden boxes, in which 
case the handler is ignorant of the contents and takes no extra 
precautions. 

Express companies charge an extra rate for handling eggs for 
hatching, hence are expected to give them unusual care. The 
package, of whatever type, should be plainly marked, stating 
the nature of the contents and the danger of breakage. During 
extremely cold weather when there is danger of chilling, it is advis- 
able to wrap each egg in paper before putting it in the container. 

Chance of Fertility. — Since the hatching egg has no value 
unless fertile, the greatest care should be exercised during the 
selling season not only to produce fertile eggs, but to handle 
them so that the germ will be kept alive and will develop into a 
vigorous chick. The percentage of fertility varies considerably 
in different seasons, being highest during the natural hatching 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 429 

season in the spring and lowest during the coldest winter months. 
Nothing will so soon disgust the purchaser of hatching eggs, or 
make him more quickly seek a new source of supply, than a low 
percentage of fertility; hence, the great effort made to secure 
the highest fertility. 

Value of Guarantee. — When an order is taken for eggs, some 
definite guarantee is usually given with them, especially stating 
the breed and the degree of development toward a standard, as 
well as the percentage of fertility. If the breeder wishes to satisfy 
his customer and to retain his trade in future years, this guaran- 
tee must be given in good faith. As a rule, a fertility of at least 
eighty per cent is guaranteed, as well as the replacing of all 
eggs below this percentage which prove to be deficient. When 
eggs from advertised show matings are sold, the resulting progeny 
are expected to show, and should show, the desired characteristics. 
When, on the other hand, the sale is advertised as being from 
utility matings, the purchaser will not, and can not, expect exhibi- 
tion progeny. The keeping of a guarantee means the satisfaction 
of customers, and this is the best possible kind of advertising. 

MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD. 

The great mass of eggs produced on the majority of farms, as 
well as the surplus supply from fancy plants, is used at home or 
sold for food. The principles and methods of marketing are of 
practical importance. The egg is the backbone of commercial 
poultry craft, and the production of meat secondary. 

Prices and jtheir Variation. — The price of eggs for food is 
governed by fluctuations in demand and supply, especially the 
latter. There is always a brisk call for strictly fresh eggs, but 
the variations noted are due largely to the effect on supply caused 
by changes of season. Prices for poultry products in general, and 
especially eggs, are peculiar, in that they differ but slightly in 
the same season year after year. 

The diagram (Fig. 194) shows the range in prices of eggs in 
a period of twentj^-five years. The heavy line represents changes 
in temperature. It will be seen that eggs bring the highest prices 
each year during January, November, and December, and the 
lowest price during May. The same is true of the various classes 
of meat; and if the poultryman aims at big profits from his pro- 
duction, he must market it at that season when the price is sure 



430 



MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



to be the highest. With some products it is practically impossible 
to make any profit out of season. 

Ultimate Price Regulation. — The New York markets for eggs 
and dressed poultry, owing to the vast quantities received, fix, 
in greater or less degree, the price of these products in a large 
part of the country. The general public, and rural communities 
especially, know very little about the regulation of these prices. 



/885 

/390 
/900 
/9/0 



.8 
<40 



S i 



£ 

i 









to 



b\ ft ^ $h U ^ 



* 

$ 



a 

^ 
^ 




COLD 



HOT 



COLD 



Fig. 194. — Curves showing the relation of temperature to the selling price of eggs. 
The heavy black line represents temperature, and the light lines variation in wholesale 
prices for market eggs for four years, from 1885 to 1910. 



Small egg shippers all over the country speak of the " market 
price " without knowing how or where it originates. 

The Mercantile Exchange of New York City has a membership 
of several hundred men, all of whom are interested in the buying 
and selling of poultry and dairy products (Fig. 195). Membership 
is quite exclusive, and only men of sound financial standing and 
good business reputation are invited to join. Here at ten o'clock 
every business day the members gather to buy and sell these pro- 
ducts in quantity. From the business here transacted, the dealers 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 



431 



get a very accurate idea of the ratio between immediate supply 
and existing demand. The prices which prevail at these sales 
are accepted by the dealers as a guide for that day. The dealers 
hold that some such basis as this is absolutely necessary. They 
say that, without some fixed standard, speculation would be 
heavily indulged in, and the handling and storage of eggs would 
be essentially a gamble, 




Fig. 195. ^Interior view of the Mercantile Exchange, New York City, 



The storage of eggs in the mammoth cold-storage houses in 
large cities has become a controlling factor in fixing the price 
of poultry products. Eggs are bought in the Western States 
during the early spring when the supply is abundant and the 
prices low. They are perfectly stored at a temperature of about 
30 degrees for several months. This wholesale buying in the 
flush of the season tends largely to keep the price from going any 
lower. In the late fall and winter, when fresh eggs become scarce, 
storage supplies are drawn upon to furnish eggs which, although 
not fresh, serve the purpose fairly well, and place this fine food 
product within the reach of almost everybody. 



432 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

No doubt there is much speculation in the business; yet this 
occurs in all branches of commerce. There are hundreds of sharp- 
ers who make a living by sending out cards offering attractive 
prices or false quotations to shippers; they scour the express 
offices and hang around delivery wagons, getting the names and 
addresses of the shippers. Such is human nature. Many of the 
shippers who receive these false quotations immediately send 
their next consignment to these " pikers," as they are called. 
Not until the lapse of weeks with no returns do they realize their 
mistake in not looking up the standing and reputation of the 
consignees before giving them the goods. (See New Jersey Sta- 
tion Report, 1911.) 

Points in Collecting. — The method of handling market eggs 
has much to do with their ultimate selling price, and the system 
and manner of collecting is of vital importance. Clean houses 
help to keep the birds in healthy condition, just as a clean nest 
will help to keep the eggs in good state. Nests for laying should 
always be clean, for nesting material is cheap, and it is much 
easier to change it occasionally than to cleanse the eggs. Washed 
eggs spoil more quickly; therefore they should be cleaned by dry 
brushing with a stiff -bristled brush. The eggs should be collected 
regularly, once, or, if a special fancy product, twice a day. A 
covered pail with strong handle is the best receptacle for them, as it 
holds a large number, and there is no danger of crushing them, as 
there might be in a basket, the weight making it sag at the sides. 

Selecting and Grading. — There should be a regular system of 
selecting and grading eggs, to insure uniformity and high quality. 
Before discussing the principles of grading, some understanding 
of commercial grades will serve to illustrate the importance of 
home grading. The general classification of eggs in all large 
markets is as follows : Extra hennery white ; extra hennery brown ; 
first hennery white; first hennery brown; first hennery mixed; 
seconds; thirds; dirties. 

The extras must all be of large and uniform size, perfectly 
clean, with chalk-white shells, not tinted in the least, and only 
a few days old. The firsts must be clean and of unifdrm color, 
but need not run quite so large. The seconds are smaller or of 
varying size, and the thirds still smaller. Fresh eggs are often 
sold for half price because they are dirty. 

Large wholesale markets classify according to degree of fresh- 
ness. This classification, given below, was evolved by the egg 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 433 

committee of the Mercantile Exchange, which committee is 
appointed by the president. The sliding scale was devised in order 
to meet the variations in the price of eggs during different sea- 
sons, and to permit the practical adjustment of these fluctuations. 
This classification is, of course, not ideal, but it is a practical 
one, designed to meet the conditions in a market, not as they 
ought to be, or as they would be under ideal conditions, but 
as they actually are. In speaking of a best egg we cannot have in 
mind the best egg for the whole year, but the best one possible at 
the particular time in question. This sliding scale becomes espe- 
cially valuable in those seasons when an absolutely good, fresh, 
clean egg is not obtainable. At such times, with a system as out- 
lined above, the whole classification slides to a lower scale, as 
shown by the A, B, C of the classification. With a reliable com- 
mittee, this shifting of the scale will only be to a reasonable extent, 
and should be a benefit to all. 

1. "Eggs shall be classified as 'fresh-gathered,' 'held,' 'refrigerator, 'and 'limed.' 

2. "There shall be grades of 'extras,' 'extra firsts,' 'firsts,' 'seconds,' 'thirds,' 

'Nos. 1 and 2 dirties,' and 'checks.' 

3. "Fresh-gathered extras shall be free from dirt, of good uniform size, reason- 

ably fresh, sweet eggs, with full, strong bodies, at the discretion of the 
egg committee, as follows: A, 90 per cent ; B, 80 per cent; C, 65 per cent. 

4. "Fresh-gathered firsts (or extra firsts) shall be reasonably clean and of 

good average size, and shall be reasonably fresh and full, strong-bodied, 
sweet eggs, at the discretion of the egg committee, as follows: A, 75 
per cent; B, 65 per cent; C, 50 per cent; D, 40 per cent. 

5. "Fresh-gathered seconds shall be reasonably clean, of fair average size, 

and shall be reasonably fresh and full eggs, at the discretion of the egg 
committee, as follows: A, 65 per cent; C, 40 per cent; D, 30 per cent." 

The following classification of fresh eggs shows the compara- 
tive prices paid" for different grades of eggs in the New York 
market, according to size and color (Fig. 196) : 

Whites: Large, 27 ounces and above 40 cents 

Medium, 21 to 27 ounces 38 cents 

Small, 18 to 27 ounces 30 cents 

Culls, under 18 ounces 20 cents 

Browns: Large, 27 ounces and above 32 cents 

Medium, 21 to 27 ounces 30 cents 

Small, 18 to 21 ounces 25 cents 

Culls, under 18 ounces 20 cents 

Mixed: Large, 27 ounces and above 31 cents 

Medium, 21 to 27 ounces 28 cents 

Small, 18 to 21 ounces 24 cents 

Culls, under 18 ounces 20 cents 

28 



434 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

The above prices were those in effect for first-class, strictly 
fresh eggs, on the first of October, 1912, but the same relation 
might be expected on any other date. 

In the Boston market the whites and browns would exchange 
places with regard to demand and price, the browns being 
worth more. 

After studying these commercial classifications, the follow- 
ing grouping of the principles of grading will emphasize their 
value. Uniformity is the main thing, and eggs must be so graded 
that there will be uniformity as to cleanliness, size, and color. 

No dirty eggs should be shipped to market, for they lower 
the selling price of the whole shipment, and the poultryman's 



^iq. 196.— Egg grading table in vise. Grading of eggs according to size and color, at 
home, brings better returns. 

standing suffers. Careful grading of eggs according to size always 
pays; those abnormally large or small should be consumed at 
home. An extremely large egg placed with a dozen of uniform 
and average size will lower the selling price, as it tends to make 
the normal egg look small. 

Where eggs of different colors are produced, a careful match- 
ing as to color will pay in most markets. "White and brown should 
not be shipped in the same case, as there is a higher price for one 
color. New York always pays a premium for white-shelled eggs, 
Boston for brown-shelled ones, Philadelphia has little preference 
but demands uniformity, and Chicago and San Francisco manifest 
no decided partiality. 

In marketing experiments carried on by the New Jersey Sta- 
tion, there was a difference of two to seven cents per dozen in 
favor of white-shelled eggs over mixed. During February the 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 435 

greatest difference was apparent; at that time assorted eggs by 
the case, guaranteed, brought the following prices in the open 
market: Whites, 34 cents; browns, 30 cents; mixed brown and 
white, 27 cents. The average increase in the selling price of the 
white eggs over the mixed ones was three and one-quarter cents 
per dozen. 

If the eggs are cleaned and graded, the work must be done — 
and the crating and packing as well — at a regular time, and 
always with the same care. 

Care in Packing. — The regulation egg case of thirty-dozen 
capacity is the most economical shipping case for a wholesale 
trade; but it should be substantially made. If used the second 
time, it should be renailed before filling, and all old, broken, or 
flimsy containers replaced by new ones. In packing, a layer of 
straw or excelsior on the bottom of the case will break the jar by 
permitting a certain springiness. The eggs should be placed in 
the fillers small end down, no large eggs being packed, as they are 
likely to be broken and spoil the appearance and quality of others. 
After all are in, a thin layer of hay or straw should be spread 
over the top under the lid. The lid should be nailed securely at 
each end, but not in the middle; this leaves room for spring, and 
often prevents the breaking of many eggs. 

When shipping to a limited trade or to private customers, it 
may be well to use the standard fifteen-dozen case instead of the 
thirty-dozen. Corrugated pasteboard boxes varying in capacity 
from one to five dozen, if properly packed, are very satisfactory. 
Light weight and durability are two important requisites in an 
egg container. For high-class wholesale or fancy trade, the one- 
dozen cartons are the most profitable for home grading, and they 
are a guarantee of the product. The 2x6 cartons (Fig. 197) are 
the best, being designed to fit the regulation thirty-dozen case. 
When they are used, it is better to ship in a reinforced case, which 
can be utilized indefinitely for shipping, being returned to the 
shipper empty after each trip. Such a case can be locked, and 
the product will reach the consumer untampered with; hence the 
guarantee is protected. 

In using the cartons, the guarantee can be printed upon 
them, together with the name of the farm (Fig. 197) and the 
producer. Eggs guaranteed in this way should be sealed to guard 
against any fraudulent subsequent use of the carton for inferior 
eggs; for, in any case, if the seal is broken the guarantee is void. 



436 



MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



The stenciling of the shipping case or box is advisable; for 
if a superior product is always shipped in such a case, there will 
naturally be an increasing demand for it, and the trade-mark 
becomes the symbol of quality and a selling card for the eggs. 
If a guarantee is once given, the shipper must be careful never 
to ship anything below the standard, for a few inferior eggs 
will do more harm than years of careful selection can undo. 
A neat, durable, attractively labeled case is an excellent invest- 
ment (Fig. 197). 

Shipping. — Eggs should be shipped frequently, especially 
during the summer, the frequency depending largely upon the 
output. If held for considerable time, — one to three weeks, 

A R 




Fig. 197. — A popular method of packing eggs for shipment. A, Well-built 2x6 car- 
tons used in the producer-to-consumer trade. The trade name should guarantee the quality. 
B, Substantial case filled with high-grade eggs. The cartons should be sealed, to protect 
the guarantee. 

according to the season, — eggs deteriorate rapidly, and are then 
termed " helds," which bring a much lower price. Even in cold 
weather it is well to ship at least once a week, in order to guard 
against freezing,— or overheating, if the eggs are kept in a warm 
room to prevent freezing, as is often the case on a farm. Eggs 
should always be shipped by express, the charges to be collected 
from the receiver, for he is in a better position to recover 
damages from the transportation company in case of breakage. 
It is very difficult to recover anything from the company 
because of delay; hence, the necessity of studying train schedules, 
and, if shipment can be made by several routes, determine which 
is the best, and the best time for loading. The shipment should 
start as soon after loading as possible. It is a good plan to send 
the consignee a postal card apprising him of the shipment, so 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 437 

that he can be on the outlook for it, and thus prevent delay 
at the receiving end. 

Preventable Losses in Market Eggs. — It is estimated that 
seventeen per cent of all eggs -shipped to wholesale markets have 
no commercial value, hence are a total loss; and that these losses 
could be almost wholly prevented by better management, grading, 
and methods of marketing. These preventable losses are divided 
approximately as follows: 

Dirty eggs , 2 per cent. 

Breakage 2 per cent. 

Chicks developed 5 per cent. 

Shrunken or "held" 5 per cent. 

Rotten 2y 2 per cent. 

Moldy, bad flavor ]/ 2 per cent. 

Total 17 per cent. 

Of course, this loss, resulting in decreased wholesale prices 
and heavy commissions, must be paid for by the poultryman 
and farmer. 

Prevention of Such Losses. — The following conditions, if ad- 
hered to, will almost entirely eliminate the possibility of loss, and 
even increase the profits from the production of market eggs. 
Eggs for market should weigh from one and one-half to two 
pounds per dozen; be uniform in size; be free from dirt, but not 
washed; be strong-shelled and sound, be fresh, not over five days 
old; be infertile. They should be laid in clean nests; be gathered 
often; never be taken from an incubator; never be taken from 
stolen nests; and should be kept in a cool, dry place. 

The Value of Infertile Eggs for Market. — Much of the loss, 
especially during spring and summer, is due to the development 
of the germ in fertile eggs. This is brought about by keeping the 
eggs in too warm a place, such as a warm room near a fire, by ex- 
posure to the sun while being carried to the shipping point or 
while en route, by a broody hen sitting on the nest, and by irregular 
gathering of the eggs. The production of infertile eggs alone for 
table purposes would eliminate all danger of germ development, 
and their advantages over fertile eggs can be summed up as fol- 
lows: They do not hatch; contain no germs to be developed; 
withstand heat; bear shipment well; are easily preserved; are 
slow to decay; best for cold storage; less costly than fertile eggs; 
male birds not required; and are produced just as abundantly as 



438 



MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



fertile eggs. There is probably nothing the poultryman can do 
which would so much improve the quality of eggs for table use 
as the production of infertile eggs (Figs. 198 and 199). 






Fig. 198. — A comparison showing the effect of incubation temperature on fertile and 
infertile eggs. A, Strictly fresh egg with fertile germ. B, Infertile egg after being in incu- 
bation temperature for 48 hours. The sterile germ never shows any development. C, Fertile 
germ after 4S hours of development. Eggs with sterile germs keep much longer and are 
much safer to use for human food. 



Candling. — It is evident from the above that all kinds of 
eggs are found in the egg market, — stale, shrunken, unclean, 
broken, cracked, and even rotten eggs. These conditions are 
indirectly due to one of the following causes: Carelessness on the 
poultry farm, carelessness in marketing, and climatic conditions. 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 



439 



In order to detect in the general run of eggs those which 
are of poor quality, and the causes, they are subjected to a pro- 
cedure known as candling. Size, cleanliness, and color are appar- 
ent on external inspection; freshness is indicated by firm body; 




Fig. 199. — Stages of development of the embryo during the first week of incubation. 
A, 24 hours; B, 36 hours (see drawing, Fig. 148); C, 72 hours (see drawing, Fig. 149); D, 
7 days; note the very large head with eyes of large proportion (compare Fig. 162). 

and proper care of the egg from the time it was laid can be readily 
determined by holding it before a strong light in such a way 
that the rays of light will shine through the egg and reveal its 
contents to the operator. A candling equipment consists of a 
bright light enclosed in an opaque box or shield, the light for 
testing shining out through a hole in front slightly less in diam- 



440 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

eter than the short axis of the egg. The eggs are candled in the 
same way as when tested during incubation. Certain conditions 
should be looked for, and the operator divides the eggs into lots, 
each in a different receptacle according to its class, as follows: 
Rots, spots, checks, seconds, firsts, and extras. 

A fresh, newly laid egg can be recognized by the fact that 
the contents entirely fill the shell. As cooling takes place, the 
contents of the egg contract, leaving a small empty space at the 
large end which is termed the air cell. As the egg ages, this cell 
rapidly increases in size, because of the escape of moisture through 
the shell. In extremely stale eggs or those not properly taken 
care of, the cell may occupy half of the shell; such eggs are said 
to be shrunken. Shrunken or stale eggs have lost their fine fresh 
flavor, and sell in all markets at a low price. 

In a strictly fresh egg, the yolk shows faintly as a dark mass 
in the centre of the shell; when the egg is moved, this dark mass 
moves about, sometimes becoming more distinct, and again less 
so as it settles at the farthest side of the egg. Before the candle 
the rotten egg looks opaque or very dark colored and appears 
as a homogeneous mass; during the process of decay the mem- 
branes give way and the contents mix; for this reason a rotten 
egg, if shaken, will sound sloppy. Such eggs are a total loss. 
Eggs may rot from one or two causes: 

1. The presence of a partially developed chick which de- 
composes immediately after death. 

2. The presence of a fungus, which penetrates the shell through 
cracks or pores, and develops rapidly, if the egg is not properly 
cared for. 

In eggs classified as " spots " the yolk is found adhering to 
the shell, or there is a fungous growth, or a partially developed 
embryo. Such eggs are not edible. Until recently it was the 
custom in large candling establishments to break and strain 
these eggs, canning the strained material for cooking purposes; 
it was put on the market as canned eggs. This practice has been 
abolished by recent pure-food legislation. The number of such 
eggs on the market, especially during the spring and summer 
months, is enormous; such eggs are legitimately used in finishing 
leather. 

The class of eggs designated by the candler as " checks " in- 
cludes all eggs which are cracked, exceptionally small, or dirty. 
Eggs so badly cracked as to permit part of the contents to ooze 



MARKETING EGGS FOR HUMAN FOOD 



441 



out are termed " leaks," and can be sold for food if consumed 
immediately. 

Second-quality eggs are clean and sound shelled, but under- 
sized; they may be fresh, or may be held so long that they 
become shrunken and stale. Full-sized and clean but stale 
eggs also rank as seconds. 

First-quality eggs are not 
candled, being guaranteed 
by the shipper, who is re- 
sponsible for their quality 
on reaching the consumer. 
Candling is constantly prac- 
tised for the protection 
of the consumer and the 
wholesale merchant, and is 
made necessary by the lack 
of care and consideration 
on the part of the producer 
(Fig. 200). 

Preservation. — From the 
fact that eggs are produced 
most abundantly during the 
spring when the price is con- 
sequently low, and that pro- 
duction decreases and selling 
price advances during the 
winter season, a simple but 
satisfactory method of pre- 
serving eggs for ""the home 
table or a restricted retail 
trade seems most desirable. 
People have appreciated this 
fact for many years, and at- 
tempts have been made to preserve them. The best way is by 
the use of water-glass, which will preserve a small number of eggs 
for family use at slight cost. It cannot, however, be used for eggs 
at wholesale. Eggs may be preserved for a year, and yet be suffi- 
ciently fresh for cooking. It is often impossible to distinguish eggs 
preserved in water-glass from eggs only six or seven days old; 
in fact, if properly done, the preserved egg is often superior to the 
apparently fresh one; as, for instance, when the latter has been 




Fig. 200. — A commercial egg candler at 
work. The electric light is here enclosed in a 
stovepipe with two holes in the side. Each grade 
of eggs is placed in its own case. 



442 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

exposed to a warm August sun during the greater part of the 
time intervening between laying and marketing. 

Perfect preservation depends upon two factors, — the condi- 
tion of the eggs when preserved and the method of preserving. 

Eggs which are to be preserved should be from a perfectly 
healthy flock which has been supplied with enough shell-forming 
material to make it certain that the shells are of fair and uniform 
thickness. The nests should be clean and well ventilated, so that 
the eggs cannot become infected while in them. The eggs should 
be gathered daily, to prevent any heating by broody hens, and 
should be kept in a dry, cool room away from the direct rays of 
the sun. Use only clean ones, and preserve them the day they 
are laid. Those eggs laid in April, May, and June should be 
preserved, for there is less profit at other seasons. 

Method. — A cool and dry but dark cellar in which the tem- 
perature does not rise higher than 60 degrees is the best place in 
which to keep them. Clean stone jars holding about fifteen 
dozen eggs are the best receptacles. To ten quarts of clean, boiled 
water, which has been allowed to cool, add one quart of water- 
glass, and stir until thoroughly mixed. 

The eggs should be placed in the receptacle, being sure that 
none are dirty or cracked, and over them the liquid should be 
poured until all are completely submerged. They should be 
kept submerged about an inch below the top of the liquid. 
The receptacle should be covered to stop evaporation; if left 
exposed, the mixture turns a milky white and does not pre- 
serve the eggs properly. The jars should be placed on a shelf 
or dry platform out of the direct rays of the sun. The preserv- 
ing solution should not be used for more than one batch of eggs 
or more than one season. If correctly done the shrinkage in 
weight by this process, over a period of nine months, is not 
more th?»n one per cent. 

Storage. — The cold storage of eggs has come to be a recognized 
part of the commercial business. It is much the safest, as well as 
the most economical, way by which to preserve large quantities of 
eggs for an extended period. It enables the poultryman to sell 
his product at a profit the year round. If he could not store them 
during the time of heavy production, eggs would be so plentiful 
during the spring that they could not be sold, and during the 
winter few could be had at any price. The holding back of eggs 
by means of artificial refrigeration is a source of larger annual 



MARKETING LIVE POULTRY 443 

profit to the egg producer, and yet makes eggs cheaper for con- 
sumers in winter. 

Commercial cold storage consists in keeping eggs in scru- 
pulously clean rooms at a temperature of from 29° to 32° F., from 
March or April until the following January or February, or even 
later if the winter is severe and the spring supply comes in slowly. 
During these latter months fresh prime eggs usually sell for thirty 
to fifty cents, while fancy Western storage eggs bring from twenty- 
five to thirty-five. The storage egg never equals the fresh egg in 
quality, yet it is just as good for cooking purposes, and its lower 
price at this time enables the housewife to secure an abundance of 
good eggs at reasonable cost. 

MARKETING LIVE POULTRY. 

In shipping live birds to market under a guarantee, they must 
be just as carefully selected and graded as any other poultry 
product. They should be up to the designated weight, and as 
uniform as it is possible to have them. The small producer ship- 
ping small quantities will usually find it impracticable to guar- 
antee such a shipment, but will dispose of the entire lot at the 
current price for mixed goods. 

The great mass of live poultry which reaches the Eastern 
markets is shipped from the Central-Western States in carload 
lots. These cars are built for the purpose, being made with four 
or five floors or tiers. 

When shipping short distances to local markets, specially 
constructed but strong and durable shipping cases are used. If 
breeding birds are shipped, care must be exercised to protect them 
from injury and from colds due to drafts. 

Live birds for food are usually shipped by freight, and, if a 
considerable distance is to be covered, provision must be made 
for feeding and watering them. Fowls are usually sold alive, 
direct from the farm, while such meat birds as broilers and capons 
are usually dressed, owing to the higher price they bring if so 
prepared. 

Baby chicks should be shipped as soon as they are taken 
from the incubator, — that is, as soon as they are perfectly dry 
and on their feet. They should be put in strong light-weight 
boxes and securely fastened. The box should have holes for ven- 
tilation (Fig. 201), and be divided into compartments, with not 
more than twenty-five chicks in each compartment; this prevents 



444 



MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



crowding, and perhaps suffocation. If the bottom is lined with 
burlap it will keep the chicks from slipping about. 

The boxes should be plainly marked, stating nature of con- 
tents and name of customer and shipper. They should always 




FlG. 201. — Boxes for shipping baby chicles. (Photo by Rancocas Poultry Farm.) 

be sent by express, the customer being notified in advance of the 
shipment so that the brooder may be in readiness. 

MARKETING DRESSED POULTRY. 

After plucking and cooling, the dressed birds should be sorted, 
especially if they vary much in size and quality. A box of poultry 
should contain birds which are alike in character and size. Each 
box is labeled according to the character of the contents. De- 
fective birds, such as those torn in picking, those which are thin, 
or which show any deformity, such as crooked breasts and backs, 
should not be shipped, but may be consumed at home. If packed 
with the others such birds spoil the appearance of the whole lot 
(Fig. 202). The selling price of the best, and of the whole box, is 
reduced by the few poor ones. With market poultry uniformity 
is just as important as with eggs (Fig. 203). 

Packages and Packing. — The kind of cases used for shipping 
depends upon the type of birds and the quality. Broilers are 



MARKETING DRESSED POULTRY 



445 



usually shipped in barrels, but extra-quality broilers are often 
packed in boxes or small cases, carefully labeled and guaranteed ; 
they must, however, be of fine quality to warrant such procedure. 



B 




Fig 202. — Undesirable types of market broilers which should be consumed at home. 
A, Torn during picking; B, crooked back; C, starved and emaciated. 



4 A ~>\ 



- 





Fig. 203. — Soft roasters ready for market. Uniformity in size and quality is necessary if 
the best prices are to be realized. (Photo by Purdue University.) 

Roasters and capons are usually packed in boxes, the size 
depending upon the weight and size of the birds. As a rule, 
twelve birds are packed in each box. 

If water is used for cooling the carcasses, they should after- 



446 



MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 



ward be laid on a sloping table or may be suspended while they 
are draining. The barrel or box should be lined with waxed or 
paraffin paper, to keep them from rubbing against the box and to 
protect them from staining. When packed in barrels (Fig. 204, 
A), the wings should be folded over the back, and the birds laid 




Fig. 204. — Methods of packing fancy grades of dressed poultry. A, Barrel and box 
packed, corn-fed pullets; B, roasting chickens showing side pack; C, roasting chickens, 
showing back pack; D, an extra fancy grade of roasters, packed in pairs, in special paste- 
board cartons. Six cartons make a crate. (Photo by U. S. Bureau of Chemistry.) 

in the barrel in circular layers; with broilers one can usually 
form two perfect circles, one within the other, with three birds 
in the centre to complete the layer. The number of birds in a 
layer depends upon the size. When the quality warrants it or 
when roasters or fowls are packed for shipment, boxes are used, 



MARKETING DRESSED POULTRY 



447 



but they must be so packed as to make a good appearance, or the 
best prices will not be realized. There are three ways of packing 
the birds, namely, side, breast (Fig. 204, B, C), and back packing. 
The side pack, the birds being laid on one side, is the most common. 
When shipping in warm weather, crushed ice should be used 
(Fig. 205), placing first a layer of birds and then a layer of ice, 
the amount of ice depending on the weather and shipping distance, 
more of course being necessary in midsummer and none during 
the winter. In hot weather it is a good plan to place a large cake 
of ice at the top of the barrel before putting the cover on. As 
the ice melts, the water percolates down through the contents and 




Fig. 205. — A fancy grade of broilers, box packed and iced for shipment. The side pack 

is used here. 

keeps them cool. Holes bored in the bottom of the receptacle will 
permit the water to escape; otherwise it would spoil the contents. 

Plenty of ice must be used, or the birds will deteriorate greatly 
during shipment and bring a lower price (Fig. 205). 

Shipping. — Dressed poultry should always be shipped by ex- 
press, charges to be collected. This is the quickest mode of 
shipping, the products reaching the consignee in the best con- 
dition and being delivered immediately upon receipt. If, by a 
mistake in handling, they go astray or are held back, having been 
sent " collect " the express company is made liable, and can more 
easily be compelled to settle. 

Dressed poultry usually finds a better market between the 
middle and end of the week than during the first of the week. 
This is especially true of live poultry, the heavy demand being 



448 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

for Sunday. It is well, therefore, so to plan shipments that they 
will reach their destination on Thursday, or not later than Friday. 

Cold Storage of Dressed Poultry. — Where dressed poultry is to 
be shipped a considerable distance to market, it is usually sent in 
refrigerator cars, in which the temperature is kept at or below 40° F. 
by means of salt and ice crushed fine and packed in the bunkers. 
In this way dressed poultry can be shipped thousands of miles, and 
will go through in prime condition. Thorough chilling for about 
forty-eight hours in a mechanical freezer before placing the poultry 
in the car will help to put the shipment through in good shape. 

During periods of heavy production dressed poultry is often 
placed in cold storage, but it should be held a much shorter time 
than is the case with eggs. Cold-storage birds deteriorate consider- 
ably, especially if not properly bled and dressed ; and, owing to this, 
the practice should be limited to holding for only short periods. 

OTHER PRODUCTS. 

Preparing and Marketing the Feathers. — On large plants 
where many birds are killed and dry picked, the feathers, if prop- 
erly handled, bring in a considerable revenue. Scalding, however, 
so reduces their value that they do not pay for drying and curing. 
White feathers always bring a higher price than those of mixed 
colors. In dry picking the best method is to have at the side of 
the picker a barrel or large box in which to put all the soft, fluffy 
and body feathers, the larger ones with a big quill being kept 
separate, as they are of no value. The feathers must be kept 
free from dirt and blood, and at the end of each day's picking 
they should be spread out about six inches deep on a clean floor 
to dry. A good place is a dry, well-ventilated loft. They should 
be turned every few days for three weeks, after which they may be 
bagged up and sold. 

In some sections buyers of poultry and eggs collect feathers 
also, but there is usually no local collector available for the small 
producer, whose best course is to get the name of some special 
feather buyer from trade papers, and communicate with him. 
Such firms purchase feathers of all qualities, and on request will 
quote prices and manner of shipping. Extensive shippers of 
dressed poultry find it to their advantage to secure a regular 
firm to handle their whole output of feathers at a regular price. 
In this way the producer learns what quality and methods are 



COOPERATIVE MARKETING 449 

favored by that particular firm, and thus realizes a higher price. 
Feathers bring from 25 to 40 cents per pound the year round. 

Duck feathers are more valuable, and they are very abundant. 
Goose feathers bring the highest price, but the supply is limited. 

How to Handle the Manure. — Poultry manure is one of the 
most valuable fertilizers produced by farm animals, being espe- 
cially rich in nitrogen, and in demand for truck raising. For this 
purpose it finds a ready market at seventy-five to eighty cents 
per barrel the year round. Formerly it was in considerable de- 
mand for tanning purposes, but the scarcity of the right quality 
and the increasing substitution of chemicals have almost entirely 
driven it out of this market. 

Poultrymen who raise crops will probably find that they can 
realize the most from their manure by using it on their own lands 
in growing larger crops for feed. If the manure is to retain its 
fertility, it should be collected regularly and properly taken care 
of. This necessitates the use of a good absorbent on the dropping 
boards, or under the perches if dropping boards are not used. 

Amixture of equal parts of land plaster and loam is very good for 
this purpose. Sifted coal ashes are also useful, and dry, pulverized 
peat moss is excellent. Ground phosphate rock is often used. The 
material used should absorb the moisture and dry out the droppings 
quickly, yet in itself be a good fertilizer. Sawdust and shavings are 
undesirable, as, if used in large quantities, they are injurious to 
the land. Lime is also objectionable, as it liberates the ammonia 
containing the nitrogen. The droppings should be placed in a 
covered receptacle where the rain cannot wash and leach them. 

If they can be kept dry so much the better. A large box or 
storage bin of heavy planking or, better yet, of hollow tile, so con- 
structed that the air will circulate through the mass of droppings, 
is very effective. If the amount is limited, because of the small 
number of birds kept, a good way is to use covered barrels in which 
a few holes are bored to admit air. They are handy from the fact 
that they can be easily carried to the field when needed for spread- 
ing, and save extra labor. The practice of spreading such manure 
frequently on the fields is better than using storage sheds. 

COOPERATIVE MARKETING. 

Of all questions confronting the poultryman, that of marketing 
is by far the most intricate and difficult of solution. It involves 
efficient methods in production and preparation and good busi- 
29 



450 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

ness principles in distribution. The methods can be acquired by 
study and practice; but distribution demands the highest degree 
of concentration of mind, as well as cooperation between pro- 
ducers, in order effectually to control its factors. 

The consumer must be brought closer to the producer. Too 
much of what the consumers pay goes to the middle men. The 
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1910 shows that the 
farmer or poultryman receives for poultry but little more than 
one-half of what the consumers pay, while for eggs he receives 
only 69 per cent. The poultryman must better his position by 
organization and cooperation in buying and selling. Thus he 
can cut out the charges and profits of the middle men, and can 
put on the market a large quantity of better-grade products which 
will insure a continuous demand at profitable prices. It also 
eliminates the necessity for two or three handlings in the course 
of distribution, which means a higher price for the producer and a 
lower one for the consumer. One of the chief causes of the high 
cost of living at any time is not the high prices received by the 
producer, but the excessive cost of distribution. 

A cooperative movement in marketing must have for its 
watchword, "Quality and uniformity of products sold"; lacking 
this it cannot long be successful. An honest spirit of rivalry be- 
tween the parties is another essential, and is more important 
than the manner of selling. The success of such an organization 
depends on the integrity and sincerity of each member. Many 
such movements have failed because the members did not hold 
together, or because one of their number tried to sell an inferior 
product under the guarantee of the association. 

Denmark is noted for the success of its agricultural organiza- 
tions, especially in the cooperative selling of eggs. Canada also 
has recently achieved marked success in this line. It is carried 
on by means of " egg circles," which are merely associations of 
the producers in a given community, who conform to certain 
standards in the production, collecting, and grading of their eggs, 
and agree to sell them under a trade name and guarantee. Hav- 
ing a large number to dispose of, it is easy to create a steady 
demand and to sell them at attractive prices. One member of 
the organization is elected or hired to collect and ship the eggs 
from one to three times a week, according to the season. 



REVIEW 451 



REVIEW. 

1. What are the qualifications of a good salesman? 

2. What are the three types of markets? 

3. Discuss the possibilities and advantages of each of the three types. 

4. Discuss the relative returns for marketing eggs through different channels 

of trade. 

5. Outline the possible courses of products from producer to consumer. 

6. Classify customers according to their financial standing and products 

purchased. 

7. What factors influence the price which the ultimate consumer pays? 

8. What factors determine the supply? 

9. Why is systematic delivery so important to the customer? 

10. For what two objects are eggs marketed? 

11. Discuss the packing and shipping of eggs for hatching. 

12. Tell of the importance of fertility. 

13. What is the value of a guarantee on eggs sold for hatching? 

14. Discuss prices and their variation, for market eggs. 

15. Tell what you can about the ultimate price regulation of market eggs. 

16. What are the important points in collecting market eggs? 

17. Give the general market classification of fresh eggs. 

18. How are the different degrees of freshness in eggs designated? 

19. How do prices vary in regard to size and color? 

20. Discuss the packing of table eggs for shipment. 

21. What are the advantages of stenciling cases? 

22. How should eggs be shipped? 

23. Name six preventable losses in market eggs. 

24. Give eight means of preventing the above losses. 

25. What are the advantages of infertile eggs? 

26. Name the causes which make candling necessary. 

27. Into what six grades does the commercial candler divide his eggs? 

28. In what two ways are rotten eggs produced? 

29. Outline a method of preserving eggs for home use. 

30. Discuss the cold storage of eggs. 

31. What are the essential points in marketing live poultry? 

32. Describe packages and method of packing dressed poultry. 

33. How should dressed poultry be shipped? 

34. How should feathers be handled? 

35. Describe a profitable way of deriving revenue from the manure. 

36. What are the possibilities of cooperative marketing? 

References. — The Marketing of Poultry Products, by F. H. Stoneburn, 
Connecticut Bulletin 38. Marketing Poultry Products, by H. R. Lewis, New 
Jersey Board of Agriculture Bulletin. Changes Taking Place in Chickens in 
Cold Storage, by M. E. Pennington, U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook 
1907. Studies of Poultry from the Farm to the Consumer, by M. E. Penning- 
ton, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 64. Marketing Poultry Products, 
by James E. Rice, Cornell Reading Course Bulletin 20. Marketing Eggs 
through the Creamery, by Robert R. Slocum, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 445. 



452 MARKETING THE PRODUCTS 

The Reduction of Waste in Marketing, by Frank Andrews, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture Yearbook 1911. The Egg Trade of the United States, by- 
Hastings, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 140. Eggs and their 
Use as Food, by G. F. Langworthy, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 12S. Poultry as 
Food, by H. W. Atwater, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 182. Poultry as Food, by 
R. D. Milner, Connecticut Bulletin 27. The Improvement of the Farm Egg, 
by Lamon and Opperman, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 141. 
Selling Eggs by Weight, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 122. Food Value of Eggs. 
in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 87. Analysis of Eggs, Maine Bulletin 75. 
Preserving Eggs, Arizona Bulletin 60. The Marketing of Eggs, by A. G. 
Phillips, Kansas Bulletin 162. The Marketing of Eggs, by C. S. Plum, Ohio 
Extension Bulletin 8. Poultry Manure, in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 384. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING. 

Importance of Records. — Record keeping is essential in any 
line of business if the owner of that business is to have a clear 
grasp of its details. But it is doubly necessary in poultry craft, 
because poultry raising is primarily a matter of detail. The 
following are some of the chief reasons for the keeping of records : 

1. They lessen the strain on memory. Even though the 
poultryman be gifted with a remarkable memory, he will have 
sufficient opportunity to exercise it after writing down all the 
more important of his happenings and transactions. 

2. It is the only accurate way to keep track of work previ- 
ously done. Memory will sometimes fail a man, even though 
his mental power be remarkable. 

3. Records accurately kept may be of great value for refer- 
ence at a distant time in the future. 

4. The comparison of records extending over a period of 
years will reveal any improvement or deterioration in the run- 
ning of the plant, and will indicate the continuance or change of 
these methods, as may be advisable. 

5. Records enable the poultryman to detect leaks in the 
different branches of his business, and to stop them. 

6. He can find out at any time how his business stands finan- 
cially, as well as the effectiveness of the various operations, such 
as incubation, brooding, and egg production. 

7. The poultryman who advertises can back up his advertise- 
ments with actual facts from the records of the cost and pro- 
duction of his own flocks. 

8. Records make possible home experimentation and improve- 
ment in methods. 

9. They create a love for and an interest in the work which 
otherwise might not be awakened. 

Planning Records. — In planning to keep poultry records, four 
points must be considered, namely: 

1. Simplicity. The records should be so simple, systematic, 
and orderly as to give at a glance the information desired. 

2. They should include all transactions of the business. While 

453 



454 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

it is advisable to leave a convenient space for general notes, yet 
the record should be so planned as to cover concisely every pos- 
sible feature. 

3. There should be as little clerical work as possible. The 
poultryman is a busy man, and complicated systems will prove 
anything but an asset, for his time will not permit him to keep 
them accurately. The plan should be to set an item down but 
once, and in such a way that, if the total of a certain group of 
items is desired, it can be obtained simply by adding a column of 
figures regularly tabulated on the record. 

4. Record sheets should be of uniform size, so arranged that they 
can be easily filed and, if desired, transported from place to place. 

Important Records to Keep. — The records best adapted to a 
particular poultry enterprise will vary somewhat with the extent 
and character of the business, yet what may be termed " general 
poultry records " will be useful on any poultry farm. In some 
instances more complicated records may be needed; as, for ex- 
ample, on progressive breeding farms, where pedigree matings 
and lengthy, trap-nest records are to be kept. Types of records 
and facts to be recorded are here discussed. 

Breeding records are most important where improvement of 
stock is systematically brought about by breeding and selection, 
and also where advertised matings are kept and stock and eggs 
for hatching sold. Such records show: (1) The matings, desig- 
nated by number or letter. It is an excellent plan to use both letter 
and number, one signifying the year and the other the number of 
the mating. (2) The manner of marking the eggs from each 
mating. The best method is to use the number of the mating 
for this purpose, and, if trap-nest records are kept, this number 
can be written on the large end of the egg, directly over the bird's 
band number, with a line between. (3) Breeding records 
should also contain trap-nest records of matings of the birds, as 
well as a brief description of both male and female. (4) Eggs 
set and resulting chicks. 

The safest way to mark the chicks from pedigree matings is 
by chick leg bands (Fig. 153), which are subsequently changed 
for adult bands, the new number being placed on the breeding 
record at the time of changing. 

Another method is to use the toe punch, which, however, is 
limited to the few combinations which can be designated (Fig. 
152); there is also the possibility of the marks not being perma- 



IMPORTANT RECORDS TO KEEP 



455 



nent. The rim punch should always be used, as it is the only 
instrument which makes a clean hole without tearing. The hole 
should be made far enough from the edge to minimize the danger 
of its tearing out. 

The following form shows a good way of keeping mating and 
breeding records : 

Individual Mating Record, 



Parentage - 



(Male No. 



(Female No. 
Experiment No 



Date. 



Mating No. 
Pen No 



Chick 
band No. 


Adult a 
band No. oex - 


Hatched. 


Remarks. [Hatching Dead in 
weight. 4 weeks. 


Matings. 




| 








B 3 0< 
a " ft. 

CD 

















Pen Records. — By a pen record is meant usually a monthly 
sheet; but in some cases a weekly sheet is posted in the pen, and 
is so arranged that the products of that pen, the feed consumed, 
and the condition of the birds for a given period can all be 
entered on one record. The following form shows a monthly pen 
record which was used with considerable success in cooperative 
record keeping: 

Monthly Pen Record. 

Pen No Breed Number of females Number of Males 

Month 



Rations. 


Suc- 
cu- 
lence 


Shell 


Grit 


Extra 
feed 


Hens 


Eggs 


Sickness, 
Mortality- 


's m 


Date. 


No.l 


No. 2 No. 3 


o a 


I -1 — - 1 

b. ED WO 
























a >-<: 
m " ft. 

CD 
























Total 
























Weigh 
back 
























Con- 
sumed 

























Notes. — Leg band numbers 

Average daily production Total income from eggs. 

Total cost of feed Profit or loss from eggs 





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FINAL REPORT 



NUMBER OF EGGS 

Put in= 

Infertile= 

"With dead gei-ms= 

Broken after second test= 

With chicks dead in shell=- 

Pipped= 



NUMBER CHICKENS 



Crippled= 
Vigorouss 



PER CENT. 

Fertile eggs to total eggs= 
Dead germs to fertile eggs= 
Broken to fertile eggs = 
Dead in shell to fertile eggs = 
Crippled to fertile eggs = 
Vigorous chicks to fertile eggs = 
Vigorous chicks to eggs left in= 

machine after second test= 
Vigorous chicks to total eggs ■— 



458 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

Such a record shows at a glance the number of birds, the egg 
production, and the cost of feed consumed; and it is a simple 
matter to balance this sheet and find the profit or loss from the 
sale of the eggs. 

An Inventory. — In order to ascertain at the end of each fiscal 
year the present inventory value of the plant, and to know ex- 
actly how much money was spent in stock and equipment, it is 
important to keep some kind of inventory record. This is espe- 
cially necessary when adding to the stock, which means a reduc- 
tion in cash for a time with the possibility of increased revenue in 
the future. Such a record can easily be kept on a sheet of paper 
ruled into five columns, the equipment values being inventoried 
under the following five heads: Land, buildings, stock, tools 
and implements, and miscellaneous equipment. 

With the value of these inventoried for one year, the only work 
necessary at subsequent stated periods is carefully to revalue the 
stock. During the intervening time a full record can be kept on 
this sheet of all sales and all purchases, each being placed in its 
respective column. By dividing the inventory values under head- 
ings suggested, it is possible to estimate depreciation or gain in 
value in each department, and to know the investment in each. 

Incubation Records. — Where artificial hatching is carried on 
to any great extent, a simple yet complete record of each hatch 
is necessary, as a means of determining whether the required 
efficiency is being maintained, and also the better to point out 
any fault in operating the machines. This record of fertility and 
hatching percentages should be kept from year to year for future 
reference. Such a record should cover the following facts : 

Number and name of machine. 
Number and kind of eggs set. 
Date set. 

Temperature in both room and incubator, taken three times a day. 
Moisture in the incubator, readings taken at short intervals. 
Dates when hatch began and when it was complete. 
Number of infertile eggs and dead germs on seventh and fourteenth days. 
Figures showing efficiency of hatch: Vigorous chicks hatched; cripples 
hatched; percentage of eggs hatched; percentage of fertile eggs hatched. 

A simple record sheet for this purpose is shown on page 456. 

Sitting Records. — Where hatching is natural, there should be 
a simple but accurate record of the different broods hatched and 
the time when the hatch is expected. The entries should be as 



IMPORTANT RECORDS TO KEEP 



459 



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wheat 




























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meal 




























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bran 




























Wheat 
middlings 




























Oil 
meal 




























Alfalfa 
meal 




























Meat 
scraps 


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bone 




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shell 




























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E 







IMPORTANT RECORDS TO KEEP 461 

follows: (1) Number of nest and number of hen; (2) date when set; 
(3) number and kind of eggs; (4) number of eggs tested out on the 
seventh and fou teenth days; (5) the hatch or number of vigorous 
chicks taken from the nest. 

The above record can best be kept in a small pocket notebook, 
for nests are usually in places where it would be impossible to 
post records without danger of loss or soiling. 

Brooding Records. — Whether brooding is carried on in small 
outdoor brooders or in the large brooder house, if the poultry- 
man wishes to know just how efficient his system of brooding 
is, he must keep a record which will give him at a glance the 
following facts pertaining to the brood: (1) Number of chicks 
when brood began; (2) temperature of room and brooder, taken 
three times daily; (3) daily mortality; (4) amount and kind of 
feed, if desired (this, however, is not of much importance); (5) 
total mortality up to a certain age; (6) percentage of brood up 
to that age. A good breeder record is shown. 

Feeding Records. — Where very detailed and accurate records 
of cost and amount of feed consumed are desired, the method 
shown in the form on page 459 will be found advantageous. 
On the ordinary farm, a feeding record on the monthly pen sheet 
will be sufficient. 

Labor Records. — On large poultry plants where many men are 
employed, or where it is desirable to keep a record of the time 
consumed in doing a certain kind of work, the method described 
will be satisfactory. 

Have special time cards prepared, one for each laborer, for 
one week, with his name written upon it. The cards should be 
ruled horizontally into as many spaces as there are different 
kinds of work to be recorded, and vertically into nine columns. 
The first column is for the kind of work, the next seven for 
the days of the week, and the last one for the total number 
of hours spent at each kind of work. The accompanying form 
(p. 462) shows this plan. 

By making a different distribution of labor, or by eliminat- 
ing some detail, it is often possible greatly to reduce the cost in 
caring for a large flock of birds. Such a record as the one described 
will aid in solving this problem. 

Young Stock Records. — It is advisable to keep a record of 
all young stock put on the range, and to check up this list when 
they are put into laying quarters in the fall. Because of possible 



462 



RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 



loss due to shrinkage or to thieves, it is desirable to keep a simple 
memorandum of the number of birds put on the range and the 
total number taken fiom the range. Ascertain from these num- 
bers what percentage of loss can be expected in the future. The 
need of better preventive measures will be shown. 



Date. 



Daily Labor Record Card. 
[Designate time spent in minutes.] 
Name 



Kinds op Work 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Total Hours 


Feeding 


















Cleaning 














Building 


















Seeding 


















Hatching 


















Rearing 


















Miscellaneous 



















Methods of Keeping Records — There are three methods of 
keeping poultry records: Sheet records; books with either loose 
or permanent leaves ; and a card file. The method adopted should 
be light in weight, compact, and portable. There should be little 
danger of loss or misplacement. The information should be 
readily accessible at all times. 

Of the above methods the loose leaf records with a strong, 
easily detachable binder probably offer the greatest advantages, 
for they meet all requirements. Each sheet may be used inde- 
pendently, or may be filed vertically in a drawer and used like a 
card system. The great disadvantage of the single sheet file is 
the danger of loss or misplacement, and the possible injury of 
some of the sheets. The card system is excellent; but a great 
drawback is its bulk, and the impracticability of carrying a lot 
of cards to the pens or about the plant when making notes or 



ACCOUNTS 463 

studying records of individuals. Figure 206 shows these three 
systems. The post binder with loose leaves is undoubtedly the 
best for general use; but whatever system of records is adopted, 
uniformity in the size and style of the sheets must be maintained. 

ACCOUNTS. 

The Poultryman's Diary. — One of the simplest yet best records 
for the poultryman to keep is a diary, taking time regularly to 
enter the chief events of the day, such as any special work which 
has been done or any important transaction. Record purchases 
and sales of stock or products. Such a diary is both a day-book 




Fig. 206. — Three methods of keeping records. A, Sheet records,; B, loose leaf; 
C, card index. 

and an account book. From it the transactions of the day can 
later be posted in the regular account books. A diary of this 
kind is very useful if there is variety in the daily transactions. 
It can be kept year after year, and by referring to the same date 
in preceding years the general progress and season's work can be 
determined. 

What Accounts Should Show. — Account books for a year 
should show distinctly three things : 

1. All the business transactions, showing the items of all 
money expended and all money received. This will tell the 
poultryman whether or not his business has been conducted at a 
profit or loss, and the amount of same. If at a loss, this loss or 
waste can be traced to one of the different branches of his busi- 
ness. He can also see which is the most profitable line of his 



464 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

work. The keeping of such a record will not only tell the poultry- 
man just where he stands financially, but tend to develop in him 
a spirit of economy. 

If the poultryman has no time for this work, his wife or one 
of the children may perhaps be interested in the business and 
may keep the accounts. A good way to cultivate business habits 
in the children is to give them a small flock of birds and require 
them to keep an exact record for the year, thus ascertaining the 
actual profit from the flock. In this way the keeping of records 
and accounts will gradually become a mere matter of routine. 

2. The system of accounts should include a yearly inventory, 
the importance of which has been shown on page 458. 

3. The system of book-keeping should include the balancing 
of the books at stated periods to determine the financial con- 
dition of the plant. 

Methods of Accounting. — There are two recognized methods 
of keeping accounts, — namely, single and double entry. The 
latter involves considerable clerical work, as separate accounts 
are kept for each branch of the business. It necessitates entering 
every transaction twice, once as a debit and once as a credit 
item. This method has the advantage of checking against mis- 
takes. Every trial balance shows just how each department of 
the business stands. The work involved is so great that it is 
suitable only for large plants where one person is employed solely 
for the accounts and office work. 

The single entry is very simple and adapted to any poultry 
plant. In this system entries are made but once, every trans- 
action being either a debit or credit, against or in favor of the 
poultry plant. 

In this system the inventory value is placed on the debit 
side of the account. Also on the debit side are entered, as they 
occur, all items of expense, such as feed, labor, repairs, stock, 
and tools. On the credit side of the accounts are entered all 
products sold and all incoming cash, — for example, eggs and fowls 
sold or consumed at home. Such an account may run for a month 
or longer before balancing, but the best rule is to balance it each 
month, in order more closely to watch the expenditures. When 
it is balanced, both sides of the account are added, the difference 
is determined, and this difference is entered as a new balance. If 
the credit column is greater, a profit is shown; but if the debit 
column is the larger, the difference will be the amount of loss. 



ACCOUNTS 

Sample Monthly Sheet. 



465 



Dr. 



Date. 


Item. 


Feed. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Labor. | Miscel- 
laneous. 


Total. 


1910 

Apr. 1 

5 


100 pounds beef scrap 


$3.00 
3.00 
3.25 

.80 
3.75 


$8.00 


1 


$3.00 
3 00 


5 

8 

8 

10 


5 bushels oats 

Carpenter work on brooder. . . . 
Lumber 


$2.00 




$4.00 

.72 
5.75 


3.25 
2.00 
4.00 
8 00 


10 
19 
20 
25 


6 gallons kerosene 

300 eggs for hatching 

100 pounds oyster shell 


.72 
5.75 

.80 
3 75 




Total 






^ 


$13.80 


$8.00 


$2.00 


$10.47 


$34.27 



Cr. 



Date. 


Item. 


Market 
eggs. 


Hatch- 
ing 
eggs. 


Market 
poul- 
try. 


Breed- 
ing 
stock. 


Total. 


1910. 

Apr. 4 

10 


10 dozen eggs, at 24 cents 


$2.40 
4.32 

1.92 
3.45 

1.61 

1.61 
1.32 


$5.75 
3.00 


$0.55 
1.80 


$5.00 

3.00 

$8.00 


$2.40 
5 00 


12 
13 

14 


18 dozen eggs, at 24 cents 

1 hen (home use) ' 


4.32 
.55 

1.80 


15 


8 dozen eggs (home use), at 24 


1 92 


17 
19 

19 
20 


15 dozen eggs, at 23 cents 

7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 

cents 

300 eggs, hatching (home use) . . 


3.45 

1.61 
5.75 
3.00 


23 

29 
30 


7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 

cents 

100 eggs, hatching 

Total 


1.61 
3.00 
1.32 




$16.63 


$8.75 


$2.35 


$35.73 



On a wide sheet, place the credit form at right and debit at left. 

Column System. — It is often desirable to itemize the ex- 
penditures and receipts, yet not increase the number of entries. 
This is easily done by using what is termed a compound single 
entry system, which consists in having the sheets of the account 
book ruled in a number of vertical columns in addition to that 
for date and for dollars and cents. Each of these columns should 
represent a certain kind of transaction. For example, on the 
debit side, the columns could be headed: Feed, labor, stock, im- 
plements, miscellaneous; while on the credit side the headings 
could read: Eggs, broilers, breeding stock, and miscellaneous. 
When the columns are footed up in making a trial balance, one 
30 



466 



RECORDS, ACCOUNTS AND ADVERTISING 



can tell at a glance which of the scheduled items is the heaviest, 
and the relations between the different sources of income and 
expense. This system reduces labor, for it is unnecessary to write 
each time the source of expense or income, since the column itself 
is so headed. This is sometimes called the " Column System." 
In keeping records and studying expenses, those of labor 
and feed will, as a rule, be found the heaviest. In some cases 
labor will be a small item, as the poultryman has a plant of such 
small size that he can do all the work himself; but the cost of 
feed is continuous, and this must be watched carefully, and every 
attempt made to keep it down by purchasing feed direct from 
producer, by compounding efficient yet economical rations, and 
by cutting out sources of waste in feeding. 

Yearly Summary Sheet. 
Dr. 



Cr. 



Date. 


Feed. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Labor. 


Miscel- 
lane- 
ous. 


Total. 


1910. 


$11.25 
10.85 
11.50 
13.80 
13.00 
15.50 
14.15 
13.80 
15.00 
16.10 
4.80 
13.75 


$18.00 

20.00 
8.00 


$2.00 
2.00 
2.50 

2.25 
1.00 


$2.45 
2.00 
9.90 

10.47 
5.35 
5.45 
1.10 
4.95 
.45 
2.75 
1.43 
8.15 


$31.70 




14.85 
41.40 




34.27 




18.35 
23.45 




15.25 




18.75 




17.70 




18.85 




17.23 




21.90 






Total . 


$163.50 


$46.00 


$9.75 


$54.45 


$273.70 







Date. 



1910 

January 

February 

March 

April , 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October , 

November 

December , 

Total 



Market 
eggs. 


Hatch- 
ing 

eggs. 


Market 
poul- 
try. 


Breed- 
ing 
stock. 


$21.65 

24.83 

20.66 

16.63 

11.52 

6.00 

7.08 

5.37 

9.10 

8.60 

8.17 

12.56 


$6.50 
8.75 
4.50 
5.75 
2.00 


$2.35 

3.30 

3.50 

2.35 

4.25 

15.20 

22.15 

13.90 

10.80 

4.40 

7.85 

4.05 


$10.00 

8.00 

8.00 

10.00 

8.00 

4.00 

3.00 

9.00 

15.00 

20.00 


$152.17 


$27.50 


$94.10 


$95.00 



Total. 



$24.00 
28.13 
40.66 
35.73 
28.27 
36.95 
39.23 
23.27 
22.90 
22.00 
31.02 
36.61 

$368.77 



ADVERTISING 467 



ADVERTISING. 



The advantages of advertising must be decided in each case 
by the poultryman himself. It is undoubtedly true that adver- 
tising pays when it is rightly done; yet an immense amount of 
money is wasted annually by poor or untimely advertising. It 
pays best when one has a surplus stock to sell with no available 
market. If well planned and timely, it leads to and greatly in- 
creases sales, which means a larger profit or, perhaps, the chang- 
ing of an apparent deficit into a profit. On the whole, advertis- 
ing pays only when well planned, and when there is a large busi- 
ness supplying an abundance of products and customers are few. 
It will always pay in an enterprise which depends on a few sales 
of choice specimens, for in no other way could possible purchasers 
be apprised of the existence of such products. 

How to Advertise. — There are many methods of legitimate 
and profitable advertising — so many, in fact, and so simple, that 
most poultrymen entirely overlook them, and think that the only 
way to advertise is to expend a lot of money, with no assurance 
of a proportionate return. 

The following are some of the ways which may profitably be 
employed on most poultry farms: 

1. A farm and home of neat and attractive appearance. 

2. Neat and attractive appearance of team and wagons when 
on the road. 

3. An attractive and " catchy " name for the farm. 

4. A conspicuous yet neat farm bulletin board, on which 
products for sale may be listed and attract the attention of pass- 
ers-by. 

5. The ownership of birds having heavy egg records, and the 
publication of such records. 

6. The exhibition of pure-bred stock at poultry shows and 
fairs and the winning of prizes. 

7. A neat and attractive label on all shipping crates. 

8. Clearly printed letter heads without an excess of printing. 

9. Printed circulars and cards which can be mailed to pros- 
pective customers, displayed on exhibition cages at shows, and 
enclosed with all correspondence. 

10. Printed blotters, which can be enclosed in correspondence, 
and keep the breeder and his work constantly before the eye of 
the prospective customer. 



468 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

11. Using advertising space in magazines and newspapers. 

12. Agreeable manners toward all persons interested in one's 
business. This is often overlooked, and would-be buyers are 
antagonized or driven away before the possibility of a purchase 
can be discussed. 

The eleventh method, that of advertising in magazines, is 
one of the most expensive, since it calls for a definite outlay of 
money with no definite assurance of return. It should be done 
carefully at first, but it is the only real way of reaching the major- 
ity of poultry purchasers. 

What to Advertise. — In general it may be said that it pays 
to advertise for sale any product which is so nearly perfect as 
to sell readily and satisfy the purchaser, yet not damage the repu- 
tation of the breeder. The poultry products generally advertised 
for sale are fancy and utility stock for breeding, eggs for hatching, 
and day-old chicks. Dressed poultry and market eggs for food 
are rarely advertised, since there is a steady demand for them 
at a standard price through the regular channels of trade. 

When to Advertise. — There may be said to be three good 
times to advertise. (1) During the season of natural demand. 
For example, when the purchasing public is demanding eggs for 
hatching, this is the time for advertising the fact that one has such 
a product for sale. It may also be well to run a small advertise- 
ment throughout the season as a reminder to the poultry reader. 
Continuous advertising is less expensive. Advertising expressly 
to bring immediate results should be during the season of natural 
demand. (2) It is advisable to advertise at any time during the 
season if, owing to crowding or some other cause, one has a sur- 
plus product to sell. During the late summer and fall one must 
get rid of old stock to make room for incoming pullets ; and breed- 
ing cockerels can profitably be advertised for sale from fall until 
the breeding season in the spring, the heaviest sales being in the 
late fall and early winter. (3) It is well to advertise when one 
wishes to secure some particular product or kind of birds. Adver- 
tising for products wanted is, however, less profitable, as there are 
usually many advertisements offering for sale just the product 
or object desired. 

Where to Advertise. — In deciding where to advertise, several 
factors must be considered if the money expended is to bring in 
the greatest number of sales. 

Under most conditions the highest grade of poultry journals 



ADVERTISING 469 

will prove the most profitable advertising mediums. Second- 
grade papers with a limited circulation in a restricted community 
rarely prove profitable. 

When deciding upon the exact paper with which to make a 
contract, it is best to select one with a heavy circulation in your 
own part of the country. If a large number of birds are for sale, 
it is quite customary to advertise in a number of periodicals; 
this reaches many more people, and the advertisement is more 
strongly fixed in the minds of possible purchasers if they see it 
in a number of different papers. 

Another essential point is to select a paper with a heavy cir- 
culation among the class of customers one desires. The choice 
of a good medium is an important consideration. The periodicals 
which let advertising space of this nature can be grouped under 
four headings : 

1. Country and suburban-life papers. Such papers reach the 
highest class of possible purchasers. The advertising rates are 
usually high; hence the breeder must have the best quality 
of goods and be prepared to give satisfaction if he uses these 
channels. 

2. General agriculture and poultry papers circulate among 
the great mass of poultry keepers, whether they have only back- 
yard flocks or extensive egg farms; and it is from advertisements 
in these periodicals that the great majority of sales materialize. 

3. Another class of papers, termed " breed and specialty 
papers," deal exclusively with one or more closely-related breeds 
of poultry, — pigeon magazines being a good example of this class. 
Advertisements in such papers are usually read only by the best 
breeders in their respective lines, and the goods they demand 
must be of the highest grade and will fetch a good price. 

4. A method of advertising has recently developed which is 
proving very remunerative in small communities. Breeders who 
have a surplus of a fairly good product may in this way make 
good sales. It is to utilize the special space for poultry adver- 
tising now so often reserved in newspapers, especially in the weekly 
editions. The space is comparatively cheap, the advertisement 
reaching an immense number of small poultrymen. 

Preparing Advertisements. — Too much space may be occupied, 
or the space allotted may not be utilized judiciously, and much 
of the information to be given may be overlooked. In writing an 
advertisement the following points should be borne in mind: 



470 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

The advertisement should be concise and attractive; these 
features tend to give the reader the very best impression. 

The make-up of the advertisement should be " catchy," at- 
tracting the eye of the reader and holding it long enough for him 
to take in its meaning. 

It should be terse, which means that much information and 
descriptive matter should be condensed into small space; for 
space costs money, and information is what the breeder wishes 
to disseminate. 

Every statement in the advertisement should be true, and it 
should be so worded as to leave no exaggerated impression in the 
mind of the reader. For, when sales are made, the birds must 
come up to the advertised standard. Exaggeration not only 
makes this impossible, but dissatisfies the customer. 

The advertisement should give no data but what are reason- 
able or actually possible. The fact that one bird in a flock laid 
225 eggs a year does not mean that a strain of such layers can be 
developed from her eggs, nor that the average of the breeder's 
entire flock will equal anything like this figure. 

Advertisements should show important facts pertaining to 
the specimens for sale, — as, for example, a record of winning at 
poultry shows; a brief reference to utility qualities; a statement 
concerning past breeding and records made; a statement as to 
vitality and health; the name of strain, if such name has become 
popular; photographs will add to the attractiveness., 

The size of the advertisement depends upon the quality and 
quantity of products, their value, and the money available for 
advertising. The better the quality and larger the quantity, the 
greater the space which can be used to advantage. 

The greater the value of the products, the greater usually 
is the profit; hence more advertising space may be used. 

Small advertisements are usually the more profitable, and 
it cannot reasonably be assumed that doubling the size of the 
advertisement will always double the sales. 

Extremely conspicuous advertisements are warranted only 
when one has a phenomenal product for sale and wishes to enhance 
his reputation through the possession of such a product. There 
are numerous instances in which the phenomenal record of one 
bird has made a world-wide reputation for the breeder. 

Getting the Most Out of Advertising. — If the heaviest sales 
are to result from a given sum spent in periodical advertising, 



REVIEW 471 

a ■" follow-up " system must be worked out and the breeder and 
his product be kept continually before the eye of the prospective 
customer. In such a system all inquiries by mail must be answered 
immediately. A short personal letter is best, accompanied by the 
breeder's card, with circulars describing matings and pointing 
out the good qualities of the strain. Under separate cover the 
annual catalogue should be forwarded, — if the breeder's business 
is extensive enough for him to issue such a booklet. The cata- 
logue should describe in detail all matings and products for sale, 
and give past winnings and other records. It is also a good plan 
to give some guarantees as to financial standing, since it is cus- 
tomary to send cash with the order, and this reference makes the 
purchaser feel more secure. 

As a rule, all inquiries should be followed by at least two 
letters before being dropped; if these fail to bring a response, 
additional ones would in most cases be a waste of money. 

A record should be kept of all sales, so that circulars and 
catalogues can afterward be mailed to customers, with the idea of 
keeping their trade year after year. Such a record can be kept 
on filing cards, and indexed for handy reference. Where adver- 
tising is carried on extensively and in a number of different per- 
iodicals, it is well to tabulate all inquiries, arranging them under 
the name of the paper in which the advertisement was noted. 
This will show the effectiveness of the different papers, and those 
which are bringing in no return at all can be dropped. 

If a business is to prosper year after year, and keep its old 
customers as well as acquire new ones, the breeder must live up 
to his advertisement when he fills orders resulting from it. No 
business will long prosper if the customers are so hoodwinked that 
they are dissatisfied, and fail to come back every year for addi- 
tional purchases. The unscrupulous advertiser must depend upon 
securing enough new customers each year to make up for those 
lost, which is almost an impossibility. It must be remembered 
that, after all is said and done, the satisfaction of customers 
throughout the country is the most extensive advertisement a 
breeder can have, and the most profitable as well. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give eight advantages of keeping records. 

2. What four points should be considered in planning records? 

3. What points should be shown in a breeding or mating record? 



472 RECORDS, ACCOUNTS, AND ADVERTISING 

4. What is meant by a pen record, and what should it show? 

5. What should an inventory show? 

6. Describe a complete incubator record. 

7. Describe a complete brooding record. 

8. Describe a form for keeping labor records. 

9. Enumerate three methods of keeping general poultry records. 

10. Give five features desired in the record plan selected. 

11. Outline the possible uses of a diary or memorandum. 

12. Discuss the three things which a poultryman's account should show. 

13. Name and discuss two general methods of accounting. 

14. Describe and give advantages of the column system of single entry. 

15. Under what conditions does advertising pay? 

16. Outline a complete system of advertising. 

17. What products can one profitably advertise? 

18. When is it most profitable to advertise? 

19. Give three things to be considered in selecting the advertising medium. 

20. What would you consider in preparing an advertisement? 

21. What should determine size and duration of advertisements? 

22. How would you get the most from an advertisement? 

Reference. — A System of Poultry Accounting, by Robert R. Slocum, U. S, 
Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 176. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

The many advantages which a poultryman or farmer derives 
from exhibiting his poultry and products will be discussed in the 
following paragraphs. 

Exhibiting for Pleasure. — There are some poultrymen who 
keep a few well-bred birds because of the pleasure they derive 
from mating and breeding them to a certain standard, for the 
sake of the competition and the possibility of beating the other 
fellow. They are usually small breeders, and at the small poultry 
shows they form the majority of the exhibitors. But whether 
exhibiting for profit or otherwise, and in order to appreciate the 
work and to get all he can out of it, the breeder must have some 
of the enthusiasm in competition which characterizes the true 
exhibitor for pleasure. 

Profit from Prizes. — The profit from prizes, whether cash, 
cups, or other articles, is an advantage to be considered. The 
cost of preparing and exhibiting live birds is, as a rule, much 
greater than the actual value of prizes, yet the satisfaction of 
having won enhances the value of the prize in a way that cannot 
be expressed in dollars and cents. In some of the larger shows 
sweepstake prizes of considerable value are offered and are well 
worth winning from a monetary point of view. 

Profit from Advertising. — Undoubtedly the greatest benefit 
which can come to an exhibitor is the notoriety which his birds 
achieve when he is successful in winning some of the leading 
prizes in that particular class. It brings his name prominently 
before prospective purchasers of high-priced birds, which creates 
a demand, and permits him to place a higher value on each of his 
individual birds. It makes good advertising matter, — material 
which speaks for itself, and is no mere statement without suf- 
ficient backing. 

Profit from the Sale of Birds. — Another beneficial result of 
exhibiting is the possibility which it offers of disposing of birds at 
a price in advance of that obtained without exhibition. The 
prospective purchaser comes to the show looking for stock for 
breeding purposes, and the exhibitor goes to the show to exhibit 

473 



474 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

such stock. In fact, the greatest success which can attend any 
show, and one which insures its future support, is the fact that 
exhibitors have been able to make profitable sales. This means 
also the taking of many orders in the future for eggs to be used 
for hatching, and for day-old chicks. 

Profiting by Comparison.— The exhibitor has the opportunity 
to compare his products with those of his contemporary. He 
can check up his work; and, knowing something of the methods of 
his fellow-breeder, can estimate the results and profit by the 
comparison. This opportunity for comparison might be termed 
the educational feature of poultry shows, but the advantage to be 
derived from it will depend upon the time and energy devoted to 
the study. These shows also furnish opportunity to make a 
satisfactory comparison of the different appliances and equip- 
ments for poultry craft. 

The advantages of poultry exhibition are numerous, and are 
increasing every year. In the world of poultry endeavor ex- 
hibits have come to stay, and will have a permanent influence in 
perfecting breed types and making them popular. 

Development of Poultry Exhibits. — Ever since distinct types 
of birds were first recognized, there have been informal gather- 
ings to exhibit birds and discuss their differences. Authenti- 
cated records of poultry exhibitions show that they were first 
held in England, early in the nineteenth century. These meetings 
were composed almost entirely of small fanciers. Poultry was 
first exhibited in America at agricultural fairs, where prizes were 
offered for common barnyard poultry, no distinct line at first 
being drawn between breed types. In the early exhibitions num- 
bers counted for more than quality. With a clearer distinction 
between breeds and varieties, and with an ever-increasing interest 
in breeding to standard, came a marked change and improvement 
in poultry exhibitions — not only in poultry shows in connection 
with agricultural fairs, but in the evolution of the typical fancy show 
which has been everywhere prominent for the past twenty years. 

During the past ten years these smaller shows have grown in 
number and in popularity. The smaller shows are usually con- 
ducted by an organization of a few poultry growers in a rather 
restricted community. Some of these have grown rapidly and now 
have a world-wide membership. The shows of moderate size are 
of greatest educational value; in the largest shows the money 
from prizes is the main object. 



TYPES OF POULTRY EXHIBITIONS 475 

Poultry shows and exhibits have so increased in numbers and 
importance that a professional can now start early in the fall and 
make a circuit of the larger shows, and thus have birds on exhi- 
bition nearly all the show season. 

The exhibitor can choose from two types of shows, — namely, 
county and State fairs and pure poultry exhibitions. The former 
are patronized to quite an extent by the small breeder who has 
not yet attained such a degree of perfection as will permit him 
to compete at the larger and special poultry shows. They are 
also frequented by the breeder on a large scale as a means of 
getting his birds into shape for the winter shows. He has a 
chance to win some prizes, which will offset the need of special 
effort at home. 

Types of Poultry Exhibitions. — There are four distinct classes 
of poultry exhibits: Standard-bred poultry, exhibits which rep- 
resent merely utility value, exhibits of poultry products, and 
educational poultry exhibits. 

Standard-bred 'poultry predominates, and is found more or 
less in all poultry exhibitions, regardless of the primary object. 
The breeding of standard-bred poultry should be, and is, the chief 
aim of the great majority of poultry breeders, whether they seek 
ultimately to gain distinction by breeding prize winners or by 
producing market eggs or the best market poultry. Hence the 
exhibition of birds which are standard-bred as to color pattern, 
weight, and shape is a matter of vital interest to all. 

Utility Features. — Exhibitions of poultry for their utility or 
commercial food value are now enjoying considerable popularity, 
and are becoming a regular side issue of the standard poultry 
exhibition. Prizes are offered, and competent judges appointed to 
award them. The birds are arranged in two classes, — live and 
dressed; each may be subdivided, according to their commercial 
value, as fowls, large roasters, light roasters, large, medium, and 
squab broilers, and capons. Prizes are awarded according to 
weight, shape, and appearance. In view of their increasing popu- 
larity, these exhibitions will no doubt be extensively developed in 
the near future. 

Exhibitions of poultry products now take place in connection 
with regular shows, and are becoming even more popular than 
the utility exhibits. These products are usually eggs, prizes 
being offered and classes arranged for white and brown eggs, for 
eggs from the different standard breeds, and for commercial eggs 



476 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

showing methods of crating and marketing. In awarding pre- 
miums the size, weight, shape, color, uniformity, texture, and 
cleanliness are all taken into account. Such exhibits can be 
made very instructive by showing improvements in grading and 
marketing, and the higher prices thereby realized. 

Educational exhibits may be of two distinct kinds, — college 
poultry shows and poultry extension exhibits. College shows are 
run by the students themselves as a part of the course of instruc- 
tion in poultry craft. These shows usually embrace all the types 
of exhibits, and are purely for educational purposes, the students 
forming from among their members the organization necessary 
to run the show properly, outlining classes, erecting coops, and 
staging the birds. It is generally the custom to let each student 
make entries from the college flock, the order of selection and 
entry being drawn by lot. In connection with such a show, there 
is usually a competitive judging contest, in which the students 
are given a certain class to judge by comparison, the successful 
competitors winning cups or other premiums for their excellent 
work. The information secured and the experience acquired 
by such an exhibition do more to fix breed types in mind 
and familiarize the student with the objects and methods of 
running a show than weeks of study in the classroom would 
accomplish. 

The second distinctive educational exhibit may be termed 
" poultry extension exhibits at agricultural fairs and poultry 
shows." Such exhibits are prepared by the poultry departments 
of the State Agricultural Colleges, and are exhibited at all leading 
fairs and shows in their respective States. They deal more with 
methods than with the actual exhibition of birds, although the 
latter is done to some extent. The housing and care of poultry is 
taught by means of models and charts, also feeding, sanitation, 
grading, sorting, and packing. 

The possibilities in such work are almost endless and the 
results far-reaching, for they demonstrate to the farmer the 
teachings of experimental work and offer to the colleges and experi- 
ment stations an opportunity to keep in touch with the conditions 
in different communities. This same kind of exhibit is often used 
in connection with educational train work, where a part of a car 
or a whole one is devoted to a travelling poultry exhibit, which is 
a supplement to lectures given. Demonstrations in killing, pick- 
ing, and packing are also given in connection with this educational 



EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 477 

train work. Extension teaching in connection with poultry ex- 
hibitions is as yet in its infancy, but there are wonderful oppor- 
tunities for its further development. 

EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY, 

Preparing Birds for Exhibition. — To train and exhibit poultry 
in such a manner as to win success calls for a full understanding 
of the requirements as well as years of experience in the actual 
work of exhibiting. The amateur should begin with the smaller 
shows, where there is little competition, and where he can gain 
the absolutely necessary experience without becoming discour- 
aged. Wherever possible, it is advisable to work for a few years 
with an experienced and successful exhibitor before starting out 
for oneself. It is the same in exhibiting as in other lines of 
work: There are " tricks of the trade " which would require years 
to learn by experience, also sources of loss which should be learned 
under careful guidance. Thus the road to success is learned more 
quickly and more certainly. 

Training the Birds. — In order to get the birds into prime 
condition and to have them appear to advantage, it is the custom 
to place those to be exhibited in small training coops, similar in 
size to the ones used at the show, and then by constant attention 
accustom them to seeing people and to being handled. On large 
exhibition plants special houses are provided for this training; 
they are fitted up like a regular showroom, the specimens being 
selected early in the fall. After a short period of training a second 
selection is usually made, only those being chosen which show the 
best characteristics and which bear handling. As a matter of 
fact, preparation for the show is a continuous procedure, begin- 
ning at the time the birds are hatched and lasting throughout 
their exhibition life. The birds designed for exhibition are hatched 
early, usually in January or February, so that they may attain 
maturity and standard weight by the time of the fall shows. 
They are housed and protected from weather which would injure 
their plumage and are carefully watched for scaly legs or any- 
thing else which would impair their show value. 

Male birds require special training to help them to maintain 
their proper symmetry and carriage. The best way is to con- 
dition them in small pens, about four feet square, on the floor 
of the conditioning house, and to place with them three or four 



478 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

hens, which are not to be exhibited. Under no circumstances 
should two males be placed in the same conditioning pen. Dur- 
ing this training period the birds should be kept free from lice, 
and not be allowed to tear their combs, wattles, or ear lobes. 

The floors of the training coops should be covered about 
four to six inches deep with clean straw litter. Hard grain 
should be fed exclusively, except when the putting on of 
flesh is desired, and then considerable corn and a wet mash 
may be fed. If during the show the birds are to be fed on 
some special commercial ration, it is well to accustom them 
to it by feeding it as part of their ration for the two weeks 
preceding the show. 

Success at the show will depend largely upon the behavior 
of the birds in the pens. Of two birds that fully come up to the 
standard, the one that is easy to handle, that is gentle, that does 
not tear around the cage when the judge is inspecting, but takes a 
characteristic pose and holds it, is sure to get the highest award. 
These qualities in show birds are almost wholly due to training, 
and they will often make an inferior bird come out ahead of one 
with a higher score that lacks these traits. 

Conditioning and Selection. — Opinions differ widely as to the 
extent to which an exhibitor can rightly go in preparing his bird 
for exhibition. Conditioning is an artificial process; therefore it 
is hard to say where the line shall be drawn. Of course, if the 
poultryman is going to the trouble of exhibiting, he should use 
all legitimate means to put his birds into fine condition. Obvi- 
ously it is perfectly proper for the poultryman to remove dead 
or broken feathers so that new ones may grow before the show, 
to wash birds, to clean the shanks and legs, or to cram for heavier 
weight; in fact, to do anything which will naturally put the bird 
in the best possible condition for exhibition. 

But some obviously improper procedures are in vogue. Illus- 
trations are: Performing surgical operations to alter the shape 
of the comb and wattles, removing the feathers from the shanks 
of clean-legged breeds, trimming the feathers, dyeing the plu- 
mage, or bleaching white plumage with bleaching powder. 

Some of the debatable questions— excuse for which depends 
largely upon the moral code of the exhibitor — are the removal 
of defective feathers in soft plumage and the removal of stubs. 

Birds selected for possible exhibition must be free from any 
blemish, and in shape of body, color, and pattern must conform 



EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 479 

to the standard as nearly as possible. In making a selection the 
following rules will usually hold good: 

Study the parts of the head particularly, as they are the 
most easily seen, and any defect in comb, wattles, or eyes will 
quickly be noticed by the judge and visitors. 

The conformation of the body should be observed, and no 
bird exhibited which has not the typical shape for that breed. 

The color markings are important, and both surface and 
under color should be studied. 

In choosing between two or more birds, the one having a 
very glaring defect should be discarded for one with minor de- 
fects, even though in greater number. 

A brassy or creamy tint in the plumage of a white bird is a 
serious defect. It is impossible to win a prize or even create a 
pleasing impression with such a specimen. 

Large birds which come up to, or a little above, standard 
weight should be given the preference over small or undersized 
specimens, if other things are equal. Birds below standard weight 
may possibly be brought up to the desired point by feeding. 

Having selected specimens according to these rules, they 
should be placed in training pens, and continually posed until 
they learn to stand in the desired position, the trainer using a 
small round stick for this purpose. Nervous birds require a much 
longer time for proper training. The more frequently the birds 
are handled, the more quickly will they become submissive. 
Slight defects in the angle of the comb, wattles, or tail, may be 
wholly or in part corrected by persistent manipulation with the 
fingers. The exhibitor should send his birds to the show abso- 
lutely clean; this means the washing of the comb, wattles, and 
ear lobes, and of the shanks and toes, with warm water and brush 
to remove dirt from between the toes and under the scales. After 
they are clean, they should be sponged with clean cold water, 
then rubbed with carbolated vaseline, and immediately wiped 
perfectly dry with a soft cloth. 

Birds with soiled plumage should be washed, which greatly 
improves their appearance. Washing is a delicate operation 
which, to be well done, requires some experience. The amateur 
should practise on cull specimens before attempting to wash 
show birds (Figs. 207 and 208). Washing should be done in a 
room heated to a temperature of about 85° F. Four large wash- 
tubs are required. The birds being immersed in the first tub 



480 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

with only the head out of the water, the feathers should be lath- 
ered with a good wool soap, being careful to work the soap into 
the feathers, but not to rub across the grain or unduly ruffle 
them. Next the bird is thoroughly rinsed in warm clean water, 
care being exercised to get all the soap out of the feathers. It is 
customary next to immerse the bird in a tub of clean cold water 
to which have been added a few drops of laundry bluing, working 
it well into the plumage. There must not be too much bluing 
in the water, or it will give a blue tint to the ear lobes of birds 
with white lobes. Next the bird is thoroughly rinsed once or 




Fig. 207. — Students washing live birds for exhibition. (Photo from Cornell University.) 

twice in clean cold water. The important point in washing is to 
remove every bit of the soap, or it will make the feathers curl 
after drying. Then take a soft towel, and by patting and wrapping 
it around the bird dry out the water. Then place the bird in a 
clean coop to dry. The temperature of the room — 85° at the 
start — should be gradually cooled to about 70°. Too high a 
drying temperature will make the feathers curl and have a ruf- 
fled appearance. To make the feathers stand out from the body, 
a little laundry starch may be sifted into them. An amateur 
should not attempt to wash and fit birds for exhibition except 
under instructions from an experienced person. 



EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 481 







r 





WATER 






Fio 208 -Birds to be exhibited should be carefully washed and conditioned. A, 
White Wyandotte male ready for washing. The bird should be held so as to prevent flut- 
tering. B, All feathers should be completely wet and white soapsuds worked nt .them 
clear to the skin. An especially hard place to clean is the back and base of tail. C, bird 
thoroughly rinsed and ready for bluing water. 

31 



482 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

Shipping the Birds to the Show. — Even under the best con- 
ditions birds are subjected to considerable rough usage while 
going to the exhibition; hence they should be shipped in sub- 
stantial coops so built as to provide enough space for the bird 
yet not be bulky or heavy. They should be strong enough to 
bear considerable weight without crushing, as they may be piled 
high with other packages. They should be protected, yet venti- 
lated on all sides and at the top, thus preventing the possibility 
of smothering. A slatted crate covered with muslin is excellent. 

The coops should be plainly labeled, preferably with two 
labels, and addressed to the secretary of the poultry show. The 
secretary of a show usually sends to exhibitors special shipping 
tags with a designated place for the shipper's name and address. 

All exhibition birds should be sent by express. It is not only 
the quickest way, but they change hands fewer times and are 
delivered directly at the show building. 

Attention at the Show. — When the birds are delivered at the 
showroom, the exhibitor should be on hand and see to their 
cooping. Immediate cooping is necessary to success. If, from 
poor management, the birds are allowed to remain in the ship- 
ping crates for any length of time, their plumage becomes soiled, 
and they are apt to become sick or get out of condition. 

The exhibitor should see that the exhibition pens allotted 
to him are protected from strong drafts; if not, he must provide 
curtains of light-weight muslin. He should also look his birds 
over carefully when putting them in the pens, to see that they 
have made the journey without injury, and also to smooth out 
any rough or disordered plumage. After the birds have been 
judged and prizes awarded, the exhibitor, if he is to get the full 
benefit of his exhibit and winnings, should display labels on his 
pens, giving the name of the owner, the name of the farm, and, if 
possible, the strain or breeding back of his birds. There is some- 
times danger that valuable birds which have won against heavy 
competition may be stolen; therefore it is advisable to lock the 
pen with a small, neat padlock. This calls the attention of the 
visitor to the precautions taken, and indicates the value of the 
particular bird. While the show is in progress, the fancier will 
make use of every opportunity to confer with his fellow breeders, 
to become acquainted with possible customers, to take orders 
for future shipments of birds and eggs for hatching, as well as 
to sell the birds on exhibition in the showroom. 



EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 483 

The exhibitor should personally attend to cooping his birds 
for the return journey; for, in the hurry and commotion at the 
last, there is always danger of mixing the birds, but personal 
care will prevent it. The exhibitor should secure his premium 
cards and ribbons for future reference and display. It is unwise 
to place the ribbons won on the outside of the coop. The best 
plan is to suspend them from the centre of the coop on the inside, 
or against the back on the inside, where they can readily be seen 
from the front. On returning home, the birds should be put in 
their training coops and kept under quarantine for ten days, to 
make sure that they have caught no contagion while at the show. 
If they are soon to be sent to another exhibition, it is well to leave 
them in the fitting coops during the intervening time. 

There are many advantages and possibilities in exhibiting, 
yet there may be resulting losses. The most common are from 
disease contracted from neighboring birds, and colds resulting 
in roup due to improper conditions in the exhibition rooms. The 
exhibitor must be constantly on the lookout for such troubles 
during the progress of the show. Quite commonly during transit, 
either the shipping coops are sent to the wrong place and cannot 
be traced, or the birds die from severe weather or rough usage. 

Show Associations and the Work. — Poultry shows are usually 
held by poultry associations which may or may not be incorpo- 
rated. The small show is usually started by a few members in- 
terested in breeding standard-bred birds. Larger shows, however, 
are started by an organization incorporated with the object of 
holding shows. Such an association adopts a constitution and 
by-laws and elects annually its regular officers, usually a presi- 
dent, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer. It also usually 
elects or appoints an additional officer, known as the show sec- 
retary, who is directly responsible for the financing and operation 
of the show itself. He, in turn, appoints his assistants and super- 
intendents, the need of these and their number depending upon 
the size of the show. Many of the larger shows are the outgrowth 
of small local shows held under the auspices of a small group of 
breeders. In some sections of the country the small poultry show 
is gaining favor rapidly. 

The first duty of the superintendent of the show and his 
assistants is to write and issue the premium list, which designates 
the classes into which entries must be divided, also the premiums 
which will be paid to the winners. Such a premium list should be 



484 



EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 



in the hands of the exhibitors at least two months previous to 
the show. The superintendent should also devote as much space 
as possible to a commercial exhibit of poultry utensils, feed, and 
appliances, for such space is usually a source of revenue, as well 
as an educational feature of the show. He should also arrange 
for and secure as many special premiums and prizes as possible, 
as these will heighten interest in the different classes and compe- 
titions. He must also set aside certain areas for special non- 




Fig. 209. — Baltimore Poultry Exhibit, showing plenty of light and wide aisles, two 
important factors in a successful poultry show. 

competitive displays, since these add to the attractiveness of 
the show as well as bring in revenue. 

One of the first duties of the management is to secure a suit- 
able plaoe for the show (Fig. 209). This in itself is often a hard 
proposition, because the majority of buildings do not have rooms 
suited to the purpose, or the price asked is prohibitive, espe- 
cially for the small shows. The older associations usually hold 
their annual shows in the same building year after year, and a 
place for the show need not be considered. As soon as the hall 
is secured, the pens must be planned and arranged, and spaces 
set aside for commercial exhibits and special displays. In making 
the floor plan of the exhibition, these considerations must be 
borne in mind : 



EXHIBITION OF STANDARD-BRED POULTRY 485 

Arrange the aisles and doors so as to reduce to a minimum 
the possibility of strong drafts of air blowing down the aisles 
and on the birds in the pens. 

Plan for comparatively wide aisles, in order to accommodate 
the visitors without crowding. 

So arrange the aisles that the visitors can systematically 
make trips through the entire exhibit with the least possible 
retracing of steps. 

Previous to the show, the manager should make all prepara- 
tions for the immediate cooping of the birds when they reach 
the exhibition hall, also for feeding them during the show. In 
the. larger shows this privilege of feeding the birds is often given 
to one of the larger concerns that manufacture poultry feed, and 
they often take the entire responsibility of cooping and feeding 
for a merely nominal sum, — sometimes for the advertising value 
alone. 

Arrangements for cleanliness during the show must also 
be made. This involves the cleaning of the pens and the 
placing of fresh litter,— usually consisting of shavings or cut 
straw,- — and also the daily spraying of the pens with a good 
disinfectant. 

As soon as premiums have been awarded, the larger poultry 
shows publish a catalogue of exhibitors and winners, which is a 
great advertisement for the exhibitors and a very essential feature 
of the purely financial show. 

One of the most important duties of the superintendent is 
to secure competent judges, and the greatest care must be 
exercised to choose men of experience, integrity, and force of 
character. 

Selection of Judges. — Realizing the desirability of having 
reliable judges always available, from among whom secretaries of 
shows can, if they desire, make their choice, the American Poul- 
try Association has organized a licensed bureau of judges, composed 
of all the available judges of poultry of good character who care to 
register. 

It should be the duty of every secretary so to manage his 
exhibit that, during the time the judges are performing their 
work, it will be impossible for any unscrupulous exhibitor pur- 
posely or otherwise to bias in any way the decision of the judges. 
The best plan is to bar all persons except the judges and their 
secretaries from the showroom during the time that judging is 



486 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

going on. In order to stamp a higher character on all poultry- 
exhibitions, judges and superintendents of shows should mete 
out severe punishment on all cases of faking which come to their 
knowledge. 

EXHIBITIONS OF POULTRY PRODUCTS. 

The competition of classes for dressed poultry and eggs is 
now coming into prominence at most poultry shows, and is an 
important feature both from the educational and the commer- 
cial standpoint. Such classes will draw a larger number of ex- 
hibitors and interested visitors, and prove a most attractive part 
of the exhibit to the visitors, many of whom have no appreciation 
of the finer points of a standard-bred bird, but do appreciate good 
eggs and fine-looking poultry. 

It is a much simpler proposition to judge such exhibits than 
it is to award prizes to live birds. The conflicting characteristics 
are relatively few, they are in quality only, and are usually seen 
at a glance. In listing such classes, the publication of the score 
card to be used in awarding the premiums will help the exhibitor 
to make his entries, and lead to a more uniform and higher grade 
of exhibit. 

JUDGING. 

By judging is meant deciding authoritatively upon the respect- 
ive merits of the birds displayed. Such authority is invested 
in judges, of whom several are usually employed, the number 
varying with the number of the entries. Each judge takes the 
classes with which he is best acquainted, although there are judges 
who, after extensive experience, can intelligently decide upon 
points of merit in almost any class. 

The objects of judging may be summed up as follows: 

1. To compare the degree of perfection attained by the speci- 
mens to be judged with some recognized and authorized standard. 
From this standpoint the judges' decision is accepted almost 
absolutely by exhibitors as determining the efficiency of their 
breeding and the degree in which they have approached standard 
requirements. 

2. To compare the relative merits of individuals or groups 
of individuals entered in one class, or which are competitors. 
This kind of judging is seen at most poultry shows, and results 
in the competitors taking rank in the order of their excellence. 



JUDGING 487 

3. To fix in the mind of the exhibitor the standard require- 
ments. This may be termed an educational purpose to be carried 
out under supervision or by the individual himself. 

The Principles of Judging. — Many qualities are needed to 
make a successful judge, and in judging a show satisfactorily 
there are important points which in many contests are overlooked. 
The observance of these at the start will insure just decisions, 
which satisfy the exhibitor, and without which no poultry show 
can continue to be successful year after year. 

A full knowledge of standard requirements and disqualifica- 
tions is necessary. 

Consistency in judging is essential, and is one of the chief 
qualifications of a good judge. Some judges have a certain stand- 
ard fixed in their minds, and, after a few years, an exhibitor 
under such a judge can select a type which he feels sure the judge 
will consider the best. This is but natural; hence it is desirable 
to change the judge from time to time to insure impartial treat- 
ment. 

Honesty and justice in making decisions form another very 
important requisite. 

The development of a code for judges will promote efficiency 
and save much time. A simple method would be to make light 
marks on the display cards while judging to indicate certain 
defects. 

A natural liking for the work is helpful, for greater concen- 
tration of effort is sure to follow. 

Methods of Judging. — There are two general methods of 
judging poultry, — namely, by comparison and by scoring. 

Judging by comparison is the natural method of comparing 
specimens as a whole, giving no one part or combination of parts 
a numerical value, but awarding the highest prize to the specimen 
showing the greatest number of good qualities which, taken con- 
nectively, surpass all others. 

Comparison judging is the method in use for the award of 
premiums at nearly all poultry shows. Its chief advantage is 
the rapidity with which one can judge a large class. Even at the 
first study of the specimens in a class one can discard all those 
with marked defects, and by comparing several different groups 
the poorer ones are gradually eliminated, leaving only the best. 
Premiums are awarded more justly and satisfactorily by this 
method than by scoring; for birds of inferior type often make a 



488 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

high score, owing to the aggregate value of the different parts in 
combination, and also to the fact that it is almost impossible for 
two judges to cut in exactly the same proportion each time. 
In comparison, each judge has his own system of marking defects, 
and by going over a class a few times he can rapidly check off 
the finest birds. The skill of the judge depends upon his system 
of checking and his knowledge of standard requirements, com- 
bined with an ability to size up the form and glaring defects of 
a bird at a glance. 

Scoring is a much more formal method of judging. It is based 
upon the estimated numerical value of the specimens. This is 
obtained by giving to each part a value representing its degree 
of perfection. 

Scoring requires a standard score card on which a value is 
assigned to each part separately considered. This method is in 
use at some of the smaller poultry shows which are run prima- 
rily for educational purposes, and is also used by individuals 
to determine the relative value of their own specimens. It is 
also a part of the course of instruction in colleges and 
agricultural schools, being used to call direct attention to merits 
and defects. 

The chief advantage of this system is that it calls attention 
to every part of the specimen and to each individual defect. 
Its purpose is educational. Another superiority which the score 
card possesses is that, when intelligently used, it forms a complete 
list of defects with their location, and this is valuable to the 
breeders for future reference. 

The strong feature of the score card is that numerical values 
represent perfection of the different parts and of the whole. 
As a tabulated record the success of any score card must 
depend upon the accuracy with which the specimen is divided 
into its component values. A disadvantage is that it is impos- 
sible for all judges to view a defect in the same light, and to 
cut in the same proportion. Under the scoring system two 
judges may arrive at the same total value, yet analysis of their 
score will show considerable variation in their cuts for indi- 
vidual defects. 

Types of Score Cards. — The general types of score cards 
now in use are here briefly described, so that the student or poul- 
tryman may apply them to his own specimens, whether birds or 
poultry products, and get some idea of the merits of each. 



JUDGING 



489 



Standard- Bred Poultry. — Two kinds of score cards can be 
used in scoring standard-bred poultry, — namely, the standard 
score card and the decimal score card. 

The standard score card is the official score card of the Amer- 
ican Poultry Association, and is as follows: 

Student's Official Score Card. 
Class No. 1 — American Breeds. 



Date 

Entry No Coop No Band No. 

Owner Breed Sex 

Estimated weight Corrected weight 

Student's name Section 



Scale of Points 



Perfection. 


Shape 


Color 


Total 






8 






6 






4 


3 


3 


6 
8 


2 


4 


6 


3 


6 


9 


4 


6 


10 


6 


6 


12 


4 


5 


9 


5 


5 


10 


3 


3 


6 
6 



Student's 
estimate. 



Corrected. 



Shape 



Color Shape 



Color 



Head 



Symmetry 

Weight or size 

Condition 

Beak 

Eyes 

Comb 

Wattles and ear lobes. 

Neck 

Wings 

Back , 

Tail 

Breast 

Body and fluff 

Legs and toes 



Total. 
Score . 



100 



Total cuts 



Instructor 



Full directions for the use of the above score card can be 
found in " The American Standard of Perfection." 



490 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

The decimal score card is so designed as to give to each part 
its proportionate rank, the specimen being divided into ten com- 
ponent parts, each of the same value. 

In using the standard score card, parts which fall below the 
requirements are deducted from the perfection value in propor- 
tion to the ratio in which they drop below the standard. When 
the scoring is complete, the cuts are added, and the amount 
subtracted from 100, which gives the total score of the bird. 
Ties are quite a common occurrence, but they need not be scored 
or decided unless it is necessary to determine an award. 

The standard score card sets so much value on color mark- 
ings that its use inclines one, if not careful, to overlook those 
factors of body shape and apparent vitality which make up the 
utility or commercial value of the birds. It is, however, true 
that purity of breeding — hence of color pattern — to a certain 
extent promotes uniformity. It is also true that by studying 
color pattern the breeder of standard poultry is led to a closer 
study of the conformation of the body. 

The tendency is, and has been, to sacrifice shape and size for 
fine feathering, which in the end lowers the commercial value of 
the breed or strain. Hence if greater stress were laid, in the stand- 
ard score card, upon conformation of the body, with the view of 
increasing the utilitarian value of the breed, it would increase the 
production of standard-bred birds by the general farmer or small 
poultryman, who must get his living by selling his birds for market 
purposes. 

The perfect bird of any breed is the one which shows perfection 
in feathering. The utility and standard-bred white Leghorns are 
good examples of this divergence of values. The fancy Leghorn 
is a rather small, dainty bird, with small comb and wattles and 
rather short body; while the Leghorn which yields the highest 
profits from the sale of eggs is a larger bird, of heavier and coarser 
development, with long body and larger comb. Such a divergence 
should not exist; standard-bred birds, to rank as such, should have 
the typical shape and size developed to their highest degree. 

Score Card for Egg Type of Live Poultry. — This score card is 
of use to the breeder of poultry who wishes to breed for maximum 
egg yield. It fixes in his mind the external characteristics of 
the bird which are significant of the egg producer. The values 
given the component parts signify the relative importance of each 
part in selecting the layers and nonlayers. 



JUDGING 491 



Utility Score Card for Live Poultry. 

Commercial egg production the primary object. 

Date Exhibitor 

Entry No Breed Age . . . 



Description. Counts. Cuts. 

General Appearance (25) 

Form, compact and symmetrical, with no undue development in any part, 

as excessive fat growth, abnormal leg development, or extra long neck.. . 10 

Quality, texture of comb fine, skin and flesh soft but not fat, skin mellow 

and not too thick. Body plump and skin tight, not loose and flabby. . . 7 

Temperament, vigorous constitution, active, not lazy. A nervous, energetic 

temperament is associated with activity S 

Head and Neck 15 . 

Head medium to large and broad 3 

Eyes full and prominent; bright, showing vigor 3 

Comb and wattles medium to large in size, and bright red in color. Comb 

firmly fastened to the head. Comb of single-comb White Leghorn large 5 

Neck medium in length with full hackle 4 

Body (50) 

Hind quarters greatly developed, with heaviest part of the body carried 

back of the hock joint. V-shaped when viewed from side, top, and front . . 15 

Breast moderately full and wide 4 

Back wide and long, showing great depth from centre of back to point of 

keel 5 

Fluff abundant, fine, and lying close to the body 3 

Tail carried rather high and well spread 2 

Feathers soft and held close to the body 2 

Wings held well up and carried close to the body 3 

Lay bones soft, pliable, and wide-spread; low-producing females and all 
females during seasons of low production show these bones much con- 
tracted and hardened 18 

Legs (10) 

Legs straight, wide-spread, especially at and above the hock joint 5 

Length medium to short ; long legs — giving the bird a stilted appearance — 

are usually associated with lack of vitality and low production 2 

Color of yellow, bluish black, or flesh, depending upon breed characteris- 

. tics, yellow to have the preference 1 

Shanks free from feathers 2 

Total 100 

Final score Judge 



This score card can be used in two ways, — for instruction con- 
cerning the fixing of egg characteristics and for comparison of 
breeders when selecting for the breeding pen. 

In using this score card it must be borne in mind that, if the 
poultryman is selecting for egg type, vitality should be the first 
consideration; and, while certain features are usually associated 
with heavy egg production, yet the trap nest is the only sure way 
of finding it. 

Score Card for Dressed Poultry. — This may be used in several 
ways: For instruction concerning the meat type; by the producer 
in grading dressed poultry for shipment; by commission men in 



492 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

determining value of shipments received; and at poultry shows in 
awarding premiums to dressed poultry. It will help the producer 
to raise and market a more uniform type of dressed birds, and will 
indicate to him the special points in killing and packing, — factors 
which result in a higher market price. 

Score Card for Dressed Poultry. 

Date Exhibitor 

Entry No Breed Age 

Average weight Market type 



Description. 
Any sign of poor health or diseased condition is a disqualification. Lack of vigor is 

a serious defect. _, „ . 

Counts. Cuts. 

Condition (40) 

Weight, perfection being the highest weight allowable in a given class 15 

Plumpness, a full plump development in all parts, especially breast and 

thighs 15 

Color of shank and skin, according to market requirements: yellow, white, 

and blue usually preferred in the order named 10 

Killing and Dressing (40) 

Manner of sticking, or bleeding. Perfection is in the throat. For behead- 
ing cut five points. For exposed bleeding cut three points 10 

Manner of picking. Dry picking scores highest. For scalding cut three to 

ten points, depending upon condition 15 — ■ — 

Completeness of picking 10 

Cleanliness and appearance of finished carcass 5 

Packing and Package (20) 

Manner of packing — efficiency, 5 points; uniformity, 5 points 10 

Package, neat, substantial, and attractive 5 

Labeling or guarantee 5 

Total 100 

Final score Judge 

/Score Card for Market Eggs. — This brings out the desirable 
points in first-class market eggs. Such a score card may be used 
in different ways: For instruction as to market egg requirements; 
by the producer and shipper to keep in his mind the importance 
of grading and better methods of packing; at poultry shows in 
awarding premiums for commercial egg exhibits. 

Score Card for Market Eggs. 

Date Exhibitor 

Entry No Breed Age 

Weight per dozen in ounces 



Description. Counts. Cuts. 



Freshness (30) 

Size of air cell, perfection is one-eighth inch or less in depth. Cut five points 

for each additional eighth inch in depth 20 

Natural shell lustre, lack of same due to washing or age is a serious de- 
fect 10 



JUDGING 493 

Counts. Cuts. 

Weight (20) 

Weight of total sample, perfection is 27 ounces or more per dozen. Cut 
one point per dozen for each ounce under weight. Overweight is not a de- 
fect 10 

Uniformity of sample, all eggs making up a given sample should be of the 

same weight 10 

Color (20) 

Color of total sample, pure white or brown is perfect. Creamy or tinted 
white eggs, a defect. Dark brown eggs have the preference over light 

brown 10 

Uniformity of sample, all eggs in sample should be of same tint. Cut one 

point for each egg varying in color from average color of sample 10 

Shape (10) 

Egg shape, the ratio of the large to the small diameter is about one to one 

and one fifth; this varies slightly with different breeds 5 

Uniformity of sample, cut one point for each egg varying from the average 

shape of all eggs in a given sample 5 

Appearance. (10) 

Clean, all eggs should be free from dirt or blood stains; cut one-half point 

for each egg so stained 5 

Not cracked or broken, cut one point for each cracked egg in sample. More 
than five cracked eggs or any egg broken so that the contents leak dis- 
qualifies the sample 5 

Condition op Shell (5) 

Smoothness of shell, cut one-half point for each rough-shelled egg 3 

Hardness of shell, thin-shelled eggs which break easily and do not offer de- 
sirable shipping possibilities are defective 2 

Package (5) 

Neat and attractive package 3 — - — 

Lightness of package 1 — : — 

Durability of package 1 

Total 100 

Final score Judge 

Score Cards for Poultry Plants.— This score card indicates some 
points to be considered in poultry-plant location, construction, 
and management. The poultryman who is designing or building 
a plant will find in it valuable suggestions for grouping his build- 
ings and for equipment that will produce the best results. 

Score Card for Educational Inspection of Poultry Plant. 

Owner of farm P.O. Address 

County State 

Breed Average production per bird per year 

Total number of chicks hatched 

Total number of adult females wintered 

Products sold, wholesale or retail 

Other products produced besides eggs 

Remarks 



Date Inspector 

Equipment. Counts. Cuts. 

General appearance, as to efficiency 3 

Health of birds 8 

Fowls showing lack of vigor cut 4; fowls showing signs of disease cut 4. 



494 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING 

Counts. Cuts. 

Comfort of birds 4 

Temperature of house counts 2; moisture conditions count 2 

Location of houses 4 

Well drained, count 2; facing south, count 2 

Construction of houses 10 

Shed roof; perfect, count 2; smooth tight walls, 1; tight sound floor: con- 
crete 3, dirt 2, wood 1 ; proper type and arrangement of fixtures, 4. 

Light (glass) 4 

1 sq. ft. to each 16 sq. ft. of floor space or to each 4 birds, counts perfect; 1 
sq. ft. to 8 birds, count 3; to 12 birds, count 2; to 16 birds, count 1. 

Ventilation 5 

Muslin perfect. 1 sq. ft. to 2 birds, count 5; 1 sq. ft. to 4 birds, count 4; 
1 sq. ft. to 6 birds, allow 3; no muslin, counts 2 or less. 

Utensils : ■ 2 

Facilities for doing work properly, 1; durability, 1. 

Incubation equipment •. 5 

Location of incubator house, 1; ventilation, 1; means of supplying moisture, 
1; arrangement of cellar, 1; efficiency and sufficiency, 1. 

Brooding equipment , 5 , 

Light, 1; ventilation, 1; sanitary conditions, 1; labor-saving devices, 1; effi- 
ciency and sufficiency, 1. 

Total for equipment 50 ■ 

Methods. 

Floor space per bird • • • 4 ~ 

4 sq. ft. count 4; 3 count 3; 2 count 2. 

Cleanliness of birds j> 

Cleanliness of houses ° 

Perches 2; nests 2; walls 1; curtains 2; glass 1. 
Feeding practices. 

Dry mash ° 

Wet mash, count 4. 

Scratch grains ;•■■•,••••: ;•■.■■•■•- " 

Hopper grains, count 2. Consider 4 as the value of manner and time of 
feeding; and count 2 on condition of litter. 

Water ■' 2 

Clean and fresh, 1; convenient and abundant, 1. 

Succulence, method and efficiency 4 

Count perfect for double yarding, or range, in summer and sprouted 
oats, vegetables, or root crops in winter. 

General methods of entire feeding practice 2 

Range conditions - ■ • • ■ • • • ■ ■ ■ ■ - ■ • ■ " 

Abundance of range, 1; shade, 2; green feed, 2; dry mash, hopper ted, 1. 

Method of handling and marketing the eggs 5 

Regularity of collection, 1; care used in grading, 1; method of packing tor 
shipment, 1; regularity and frequency of shipping, 1; sterility in market 
eggs, 1. 

Total for method 50 



Cuts equipment Cuts methods Total cuts 

Final score 

REVIEW. 

1. Name five advantages of exhibiting. 

2. Discuss the development of poultry exhibits. 

3. Name four types of poultry exhibits. 

4. What are some of the possibilities in educational exhibits? _ 

5. What would be your procedure in training a bird for exhibition? 

6. What would you consider legitimate conditioning? 

7. What do you consider illegitimate conditioning? 

8. Give the points you would look for in selecting birds for exhibition. 

9. Describe how to wash a bird. 

10. Give points of caution in shipping birds to the show. 



REVIEW 495 

11. What attention do they require at the show? 

12. Outline the organization and preliminary work necessary to run a poultry 

show. 

13. How are judges selected? 

14. Give best conditions necessary for their doing good work. 

15. Give three objects of judging. 

16. Name and define two judging methods. 

17. Give the advantages of each method. 

18. Enumerate five principles underlying successful judging. 

19. Give the main points of the official score card for standard poultry. 

20. Give the uses of a score card for live poultry of the egg type. 

21. What are the uses of a score card for dressed poultry? 

22. Outline the main points of a score card for market eggs. 

Reference. — The Value of the Poultry Show, U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry Report, 1908. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES. 

In every flock of poultry, regardless of size, an outbreak of 
disease is always possible. In some cases this is due to environ- 
ment or management for which the poultryman is directly respon- 
sible; in others, disease may break out in a flock well cared for. 
Every poultryman, therefore, should familiarize himself with the 
structure and functions of the bird's body, so that the first 
symptoms of disease will be perceived, and proper steps taken 
to check its spread. Perfect health depends upon a full under- 
standing of environment and feeding, which have been elsewhere 
outlined, with a knowledge of the laws of sanitation and preven- 
tion of disease. 

Treating Diseased Poultry. — With the average fowl or average 
flock it is a well-established principle that it does not pay to treat 
diseased birds unless they are of exceptionally high value and the 
disease is not infectious. The reasons are as follows : 

Birds which have ever been affected with the common diseases 
and are supposedly cured are a constant menace to the flock. If 
allowed to mingle with the others, their identity may be mistaken, 
and they may be put in the breeding pen, to perpetuate through 
their offspring a weakened constitution and tendency to similar 
diseases in succeeding generations. 

The value of the individual bird and its production are so 
small, in comparison with the time which must be devoted to 
treatment and the cost of medicine, that it is rarely a profitable 
expenditure of time unless a bird be very valuable. 

Diseases that are infectious or highly contagious should never 
be treated with the idea of subsequently using or selling the affected 
birds. The custom should be to kill all that are diseased, and at 
once to begin thorough disinfection and keep it up for an indefinite 
period. 

When to Treat Poultry. — It is both practicable and profitable 
to treat sick poultry under any of the following circumstances: 

1 . When only one or a few fowls need treatment which is simple, 
easy of administration, and absolutely certain in its effects. 

2. When, as in the case of certain common and simple infec- 
496 



POULTRY HYGIENE AND SANITATION 497 

tions, it is possible to treat the whole flock collectively, with 
reasonable certainty of benefit. 

3. In the case of individual birds of high intrinsic value, the 
extent and the nature of the treatment must be decided by the 
poultryman himself. Here, however, there will be a much greater 
number of diseases that can be profitably treated. 

Prevention Rather than Cure. — The aim of all poultrymen, 
whether engaged in a large commercial business, a small backyard 
poultry plant, or the production of fancy specimens, should be so 
to care for the birds, and to institute such sanitary measures, that 
disease will be prevented, rather than to try to cure disease after 
it is firmly established. This accords with the present attitude of 
the medical profession, and bears out the old adage, "An ounce of 
prevention is worth a pound of cure." Vigorous health is the 
first requisite in preventing and combating disease. The elemen- 
tary principles involved in maintaining a flock in healthy condition 
and free from disease will now be considered. 

Hereditary vigor of constitution helps to throw off disease, 
and must be bred into flocks in which it is lacking. Selection must 
go on continuously from year to year for this purpose. 

Practising sanitary and hygienic care, — that is, a system of 
management absolutely hygienic and an environment perfectly 
sanitary. 

Maintain a careful oversight, and immediately isolate or slaugh- 
ter any diseased bird or birds, with prompt and thorough disinfec- 
tion whenever any signs of disease appear. 

Poultry Hygiene and Sanitation . — Given healthy birds of vigorous 
constitution, an important necessity is to have absolute cleanliness. 
While some poultrymen may succeed for a time in defiance of this, 
yet the time is sure to come when neglect of cleanliness will make 
itself felt. Of course, disease may come in spite of all precautions, 
yet the possibility of its doing so can be reduced to a minimum. 

The word " hygiene " is practically synonymous with cleanli- 
ness, hence its use in the following discussion. The essentials of 
hygienic care may be summed up in the following groups: Clean 
housing; clean feeding; clean yards and runs; and clean birds. 

Clean Housing. — The first step toward securing a clean house, 
if a dropping board be used, is to remove the droppings at least 
once a week, and sometimes oftener. If an absorbent is used, a 
good plan is to clean the dropping boards whenever the droppings 
become wet or if they do not dry quickly. In a moist state they 
32 



498 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

emit an objectionable odor, which is not the case if they dry and 
harden immediately. 

The floor should be covered with a good scratching material 
which should be kept fairly fresh and clean, free from excess mois- 
ture, and fairly coarse. It should be removed and replaced with 
fresh material whenever it becomes damp or is filled with droppings 
which do not dry. 

The house should be given a thorough cleansing at least twice 
a year, and if necessary oftener. All portable fixtures should be 
removed, washed, and placed in the sunshine to dry, and all 
window-panes cleaned. All muslin curtains must be beaten, to rid 
them of dust and make them more pervious to ventilation. The 
1 litter and nesting material must be removed, after which the 
interior of the house and all fixtures should be thoroughly sprayed 
with the following disinfecting solution: 5 quarts cream of lime; 
1 pint of zenoleum ; 1 quart of kerosene. 

This mixture should be well shaken and diluted with an equal 
amount of water, then applied with a force-pump through a fine 
nozzle. Used thoroughly in this way, the solution will accomplish 
three things more rapidly and easily than if applied with a brush : 

1. A thin coat of whitewash will be evenly applied and spread 
with force enough to put it into all the cracks and crevices. 

2. The zenoleum will kill any disease germs which may be 
lurking in the house. 

3. The kerosene will destroy or drive out all red mites, and to 
some extent body lice. The former are easily exterminated by this 
spray, and the latter by means of a good lice powder in connec- 
tion with the spray. 

The above solution, for common use, is cheap, easily applied 
and a perfect disinfectant, making the house clean, which means 
more attractive surroundings and healthier birds. 

The fixtures should next be replaced, the floor covered with 
fresh, clean litter, and new nesting material put in the nests. 

Besides frequent cleansing, to keep the house sanitary there 
must be an abundance of sunlight, which in itself is a powerful 
germ destroyer, and proved to be very beneficial to the health of the 
birds. The prevention of dampness, too, is a vital consideration, 
since damp, dark quarters furnish a natural breeding-ground for 
all types of bacteria, — places where filth cannot be readily detected, 
and where disease germs may multiply undisturbed. 

Clean Feeding. — To sum up in few words, clean feeding neces- 



POULTRY HYGIENE AND SANITATION 499 

sitates the use only of fresh, pure feed stuffs, and the avoidance 
of all moldy or musty grains and mashes; the supplying of abun- 
dance of succulent feed at frequent intervals and in small amounts, 
so that none will remain from one feeding time to another and 
become sour. All drinking vessels must be kept sweet and clean, 
and be filled with clean, fresh water. Drinking vessels should be 
washed thoroughly every month with a five per cent zenoleum 
solution. The feeding floor and vessels must be kept clean, espe- 
cially if wet mashes are given. The birds should not be unduly 
forced, as this causes loss of vitality and stamina and makes them 
more likely to contract diseases which the vigorous fowl would 
resist. Health is also promoted by considerable exercise induced 
by the feeding of grain in litter and by having plenty of yard room. 

One of the most common modes by which infectious diseases 
are transmitted to a flock is by means of drinking water from the 
vessels which all use in common. Owing to this fact, it is customary 
to give to flocks, especially if they show any signs of roup or other 
infection, a drinking water containing some harmless antiseptic. 
The best and most common one is potassium permanganate, which 
can be purchased at any drug store for about twenty-five cents 
per pound, and from which a stock solution to full saturation 
should be made, or a solution in which is dissolved as much as 
possible of the crystal, some being left in the bottom of the jar or 
pail. This solution should be tightly stoppered, and a little of it 
can be placed in the fountain each time water is drawn, the pro- 
portion being two teaspoonfuls to ten quarts of water, which will 
give the water a purple color. This is recommended only when the 
birds show signs of colds. 

Clean Yards. — Tainted and filthy yards breed infection which 
transmits disease from one flock to another or from one fowl to 
another in the same flock. The best and safest rule is to have the 
yards as large as possible, for the larger the yard the less the danger 
of excessive filth accumulation. Where there are only small runs, 
the frequent cultivation of these will greatly reduce the possibility 
of spread of infection. The raising of succulent green crops for 
forage will not only dispose of the surface droppings, but will con- 
vert them into crops which the birds can later use for feed. 

Clean Birds. — If poultry are to be healthy and develop their 
productive powers to the fullest extent, they must be free from 
parasites, both internal and external. The destruction of parasites 
will be considered later. They are merely mentioned heje as one 



500 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

of the factors in poultry hygiene. The term " clean birds " means 
the immediate checking of any symptoms of disease. This neces- 
sitates not only the treatment of sick birds, but their immediate 
isolation, and the proper disposal of dead ones. 

The only safe way to dispose of dead birds is to burn them, 
which is especially necessary if the diseases are highly infectious. 
If buried, it should be at least three feet deep, to prevent the possi- 
bility of dogs or wild animals digging them up. The danger of 
infection, however, is never entirely averted except by burning. 
A most unwise practice is to throw the bodies into the bushes, or 
other out-of-the-way spot, whence the infection, if present, may 
be carried broadcast. 

The Diagnosis of Disease. — The first question which confronts 
a poultryman with sick birds is, " What ails my birds? " It is 
obviously necessary to determine the nature of the trouble before 
instituting preventive or curative treatment. But it must be 
understood that the average poultryman or farmer cannot diagnose 
poultry diseases, either by external or internal examination, with 
any degree of certainty. In most cases it is possible by a careful ex- 
amination to locate the trouble, and thereby to place it in a general 
group of disorders which affect this or that particular organ in a 
given way. There are two general methods of making a diagnosis, 
— external examination and post-mortem examination internally. 

An external examination may show certain well-defined symp- 
toms which are almost always associated with illness of any nature, 
and which must be understood before attempting to make an 
exact diagnosis. 

Symptoms to look for are : A lack of interest in what is going 
on about it; a dumpy appearance, caused by contraction of the 
neck, ruffled feathers, sitting in one place, usually in a dark corner 
out of the way of other birds; the eyes closed most of the time, 
giving the bird a sleepy appearance; the wattles and the comb 
shrivelled up and dark or purple in color, or very pale; decided loss 
of appetite. When these symptoms are noted, the bird should be 
isolated, and an attempt made more accurately to define the trouble 
by a detailed examination. 

The following classification of external symptoms may assist 
the one making the diagnosis in determining which of a number 
of specific diseases is really present in the specimen. Before 
accepting this as the direct cause, he should compare the symptoms 
with an accurate pathological description. 



THE DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE 501 

External Symptoms and the Diseases which they Indicate. 
(From Bulletin published by Maine Experiment Station.) 
Symptoms. Diseases Indicated. 

Abdomen swollen Peritonitis; dropsy; white diarrhoea. 

Belching of gas Inflammation of the crop. 

Breathing abnormal, — i.e., too All diseases of the respiratory system; arsenic 
slow, too rapid, wheezing, poisoning; pericarditis; gapes; air-sac mite, 
whistling, or snoring. 

Choking Arsenic poisoning. 

Comb pale Tuberculosis; dropsy; air-sac mite; infectious 

leukaemia; white diarrhoea. 

Comb first pale but later dark. . Enteritis. 

Comb very dark Liver disease; blackhead; congestion of lungs; 

pneumonia. 

Comb yellow Liver disease; visceral gout. 

Comb with white powdery scurf .White comb. 

Constipation Simple constipation; indigestion; inflamma- 
tion of the oviduct. 

Convulsions Arsenic poisoning; copper, lead, or zinc 

poisoning ; epilepsy ; harvest bug. 

Cough Diseases of the respiratory system. 

Crop enlarged and hard Crop-bound. 

Crop enlarged and soft Inflammation of the crop; enlarged crop; 

gastritis. 

Diarrhoea Diseases of the alimentary tract; poisonings 

of all kinds; blackhead; tuberculosis; 
cholera; roup; white diarrhoea. 

Emaciation Tuberculosis; aspergillosis; visceral gout; 

mites; white diarrhoea. 

Eye, expansion of pupil Arsenic poisoning. 

Eye, sticky discharge from Catarrh; roup. 

Face swollen Roup. 

Droppings bright emerald-green. Cholera. 

Fever, very pronounced Peritonitis; aspergillosis; infectious leukaemia; 

inflammation of the oviduct. 

Lameness Tuberculosis ; aspergillosis ; rheumatism ; scaly 

legs; bumble foot. 

Legs, roughened with scales 

raised. Scaly legs. 

Mouth, mucous discharge Congestion of the lungs; pneumonia; gapes. 

Mouth, white, cheesy patches. .Roup; canker. 

Neck bent back Poisoning; congestion of the brain; wry-neck. 

Neck limp Limber neck. 

Paralysis Poisoning; apoplexy; heat prostration. 

Saliva, abundant secretion Arsenic poisoning. 

Skin, scaly and incrusted Body mange; favus. 

Staggering Congestion of the brain; leg weakness. 

Thirst, excessive Hypertrophy of the liver; peritonitis; asper- 
gillosis, tapeworms. 

Tongue, hard and dry Pip; diseases of the respiratory system. 

Tumors on head Roup; chicken pox. 

Urates yellow Cholera. 

Vent, mass of inflamed tissue 

projecting from. Prolapsus of the oviduct. 

Vent, skin inflamed with yellow 

discharge and offensive odor. Vent gleet. 



502 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

Post-mortem Examination. — Whenever birds die from un- 
known causes, the poultryman should make a post-mortem exami- 
nation, and try to determine from the general condition of the 
internal organs the exact nature of the disease. This may prevent 
any further outbreak, and the experience acquired by dissecting 
and studying the birds will enable the poultryman to do it each 
time more accurately. He should be so familiar with the normal 
appearance of the organs as to detect at once any unnatural con- 
dition. The majority of birds which die are victims either of 
simple diseases or of complications which have decided internal 
and visible characteristics, and with a little study such post- 
mortem examinations will prove both interesting and instructive. 

The following procedure is recommended in making such an 
examination: Lay the dead bird on her back, braced up on a piece 
of inch board; extend the wings and legs, and fasten with sharp 
nails to the board. Pluck the feathers from the breast and abdo- 
men; then take a sharp knife, and cut the skin on the median line 
from the crop to the vent, taking care not to cut through the flesh 
and rupture any of the organs. 

Next take a pair of blunt-pointed, sharp scissors and cut the 
flesh away from the abdomen, cutting the ribs on either side of 
the breastbone, so that it may be taken out entire. In doing 
this be careful not to injure the organs or to make them bleed. 
After the sternum (breastbone) is removed, the entire cavity of 
the body is exposed, and the organs will be seen lying in their 
natural position. Now study each organ, taking the uppermost 
first, and ascertain if it is normal, or, if not, what is the cause of 
the abnormal condition. 

The liver is the most prominent organ, and in the healthy bird 
should be rich reddish brown in color and free from any specks or 
blotches. It should be firm in texture, neither excessively large 
nor shrivelled up. Both lobes should be approximately of the 
same size, and the gall-bladder normal in size, bright green in 
color, and not ruptured. 

The heart should next be studied. It should be firm in texture, 
free from an excessive accumulation of fat, and not excessive in 
size. Both lobes should be of the same size; if not, it may indicate 
heart failure. There should be no tubercles or nodules on the 
heart nor in its sac ; either presence may denote tuberculosis. 

The lungs are next studied, and will be found on either side 
of the heart at the back. They are pink in color, and composed 
of spongy tissue. The lungs should always be examined for nodules 



DISEASES OF POULTRY 503 

of tuberculosis and for lesions of aspergillosis, the latter being 
much more common in the fowl than tuberculosis of the lungs. 
A small piece of the lungs should be placed in a tray of water. It 
will float if healthy, and sink if unhealthy. 

The crop, gullet, and windpipe should next be studied, — espe- 
cially the crop, — to see that there is no obstruction which would stop 
the feed from entering the stomach and gizzard. The organs pre- 
viously examined can now be removed, and careful examination 
be made of the gizzard and intestines to see that the walls as well 
as the undigested material within them are normal in appearance. 
The caecum should be studied, and the presence or absence of 
tubercles on the intestinal membranes noted. Next the repro- 
ductive organs of the female can be studied, to determine the 
possible rupture of the oviduct or the breaking of an egg in it. 

In making a post-mortem examination, if the disease seems to 
have been located, a description of the disease should be gone over 
carefully and compared with the conditions found, to verify or 
disprove the supposition. 

Diseases of Poultry. — In studying the diseases of the domestic 
fowl, the most systematic procedure is to group them, according 
to their location or the group of organs which they directly affect, 
as diseases of the digestive system, nervous system, respiratory 
system, and reproductive system. 

Furthermore, there are diseases not associated with any par- 
ticular group of organs or any one system, which, nevertheless, 
should be considered. These may be termed miscellaneous diseases. 

There is still another group, representing a few diseases of 
highly infectious nature which may affect one or more parts of 
the body. These are termed infectious diseases. 

The following list gives the common diseases which the average 
poultryman is apt to meet in every-day work. They are grouped 
according to the system with which they are associated. Owing 
to limited space, detailed discussion of these is impossible. At the 
end of this chapter will be found references to standard authorities 
on poultry diseases, where detailed information concerning each 
specific disease may be found. 

Diseases of the digestive system: Impacted, inflamed, or 
enlarged crop; inflammation of the stomach, gastritis; simple 
diarrhcea; enteritis; indigestion; constipation. 

Diseases of the nervous system: Apoplexy; heat prostration; 
congestion of the brain; epilepsy. 



504 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

Diseases of the respiratory system: Catarrh; bronchitis; 
influenza; roup; pip; canker; thrush; aspergillosis; congestion of 
the lungs; pneumonia. 

Diseases of the reproductive system of females: Ovarian 
tumors; absorption of eggs; enlargement of the yolks; inflammation 
of the oviduct; prolapse of the oviduct; obstruction of the oviduct; 
rupture of the oviduct; vent gleet; breaking down behind. 

Diseases of the male reproductive organs are of no economic 
importance. 

Miscellaneous diseases: Diseases of the liver; diseases of the 
skin; chicken pox. 

Special diseases of chickens: White diarrhoea; leg weakness. 

Infectious diseases: Tuberculosis; diphtheria; cholera. 

By the study of one or more of the recommended text-books 
on diseases, every poultryman and student may become familiar 
with the symptoms, causes, and common methods of treatment 
of the diseases outlined. These are by no means all of the diseases 
of poultry, but they cover the more common affections. 

Poultry Surgery. — In the case of lacerations, cuts, or other 
wounds, a little knowledge of surgical methods may enable one 
successfully to cleanse and sew them up, thus in many cases saving 
a valuable bird. From a surgical standpoint; there is more lati- 
tude with poultry than with almost any other animals, as illus- 
trated in the operation of caponizing. This is usually performed 
with but little, if any, attention to aseptic precautions. 

Cuts or wounds of any degree of severity may be successfully 
treated by the following method if the value of the bird warrants 
the time and trouble : 

Wash the hands and instruments thoroughly with soap, then 
rinse the hands in a 1 to 1,000 solution of bichloride of mercury. 

Pluck all feathers in the vicinity of the wound and wash the 
adjoining parts with warm water, using a piece of cotton or soft 
cloth, then wash with the mercury solution. 

If the wound is small, it need not be sewed up; if large, it 
should be sewed with white silk thread previously soaked in alcohol. 
If the wound penetrates the muscles or other organs besides the 
skin, sew each up separately. 

When completed, powder the wound with iodoform, put the 
bird in a small, clean coop, and watch the wound for a few days 
and keep it clean. 

Bumble Foot. — This means corns or abscesses on the sole of 



SOME COMMON POULTRY MEDICINES 505 

the foot caused by injury, usually by jumping or flying from a 
great height. The treatment is to open the sore spot with a sharp 
knife, going to the bottom ; extract the entire core. Then proceed 
as when treating wounds, except that it is unnecessary to sew up 
so small a cut. 

Frozen Combs. — In the northern part of the United States and 
Canada, especially during exceptionally cold weather, and if not 
properly housed or protected, it is a common occurrence for indi- 
vidual fowls, and sometimes whole flocks, to have their combs 
and wattles frozen. When this misfortune happens, there is an 
immediate falling off in egg production. If the affected birds are 
not treated at once, this falling off will be very marked and pro- 
longed, and, if badly frosted, the frozen parts will be lost. 

Treatment consists in immersing the frozen parts in cold water 
for ten minutes, after which they should be manipulated with 
vaseline once a day, until the comb assumes its normal color and 
texture. Severe freezing spoils a bird for breeding purposes, there- 
fore it must be guarded against. 

Some Common Poultry Medicines. — The following kinds of 
drugs and remedies will often be found useful on poultry plants 
where sick birds of considerable value are treated, or on any plant 
for the treatment of a flock. They should be kept in a small 
cupboard where they are available at all times. The list is recom- 
mended by the Maine Station. 

Calomel (Subchloride of Mercury). — A very useful alterative 
medicine for fowls of all ages. One-grain pills are usually used. 
One-fourth grain is a good laxative. It has a very good effect on 
the liver. When given it should be followed in two hours by a dose 
of castor oil. 

Cayenne is an excellent liver stimulant when given in not 
too large quantities. In case of colds it is very useful, and is often 
used as one of the ingredients in stimulants so often fed to increase 
or stimulate winter egg production. 

Catechu is often used to treat severe cases of diarrhoea. The 
average dose of powdered catechu is from 2 to 5 grains and of the 
tincture from 2 to 5 drops. 

Castor Oil. — One of the best and most common remedies for 
diarrhoea. This affliction is often caused by some sour or fetid 
mass in the intestine; a dose of castor oil will often remove this 
and thus allay the diarrhoea. It is also a valuable factor to aid 
in reducing an impacted crop. A teaspoonful of castor oil is poured 



506 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

down the throat and then the crop is manipulated until the soft- 
ened mass is caused to move on properly. 

Epsom Salts (Magnesium Sulfate). — It is one of the cheapest 
and most useful of all drugs. It is especially useful in liver trouble 
and diarrhoea. Half a teaspoonful for a full-grown fowl is a stand- 
ard dose. It can be fed by mixing in soft feed; but a much more 
effective plan is to allow the bird to go without feed for a few 
hours and then dissolve the salts in warm water and pour down 
the bird's throat. 

Cottonseed oil and olive oil are useful when hens are egg bound, 
for diarrhoea, and for external and internal use in dressing sores, 
torn flesh, and bound crop. 

Bichloride of Mercury. — A 1 to 1,000 bichloride solution is a 
germicide and disinfectant for external use, cleansing wounds and 
preventing infection. It is highly poisonous, and to prevent it 
being mistaken for water it is well to color it with laundry blue 
for identification. One can mix the solution by purchasing the 
standard bichloride of mercury tablets, or, better yet, have the 
druggist make a standard solution. 

Medicines in Tablet Form. — It is often desirable, because much 
more convenient and easily administered, to have the medicines 
in compact tablet form. Wholesale drug houses carry complete 
lines of such tablets graded according to dosage. They are 
administered very easily by holding the bird's mouth open with 
one hand and with the other thrusting the tablet far back into 
the bird's mouth so that it is swallowed. The following four drugs 
in this form are useful : 

Salicylic acid, two and one-half grains, for use in cases of rheu- 
matism. 

Aconite Root, one-tenth grain, for use in fevers. 

Bismuth subnitrate, one grain, for intestinal irritation. 

Iron, quinine, and strychnine tablets, for use as a tonic. Dose, 
3 per day. 

Antiseptic Ointment. — The following ointment may be made 
by the poultryman and will always be found useful in treating 
cuts, sores, and wounds of all kinds : 

Oil of origanum 1 ounce 

Cresol % ounce 

Pine tar 1 ounce 

Resin 1 ounce 

Clean axle grease (or vaseline) 8 ounces 



POULTRY PARASITES 



507 



The axle grease and resin should be melted and the other 
ingredients mixed into the melted mass. Pour into a tin or mold 
and allow to cool. 

POULTRY PAEASITES. 

External Parasites. — The prevention or extermination of com- 
mon external poultry parasites is a tedious and painstaking process, 
necessitating constant watchfulness and preventive measures. 
There are some thirty known species of insects and other forms of 
animal life which are parasitic upon poultry, some living on the 
skin, some boring under it, while others stay on the bird only long 
enough to get their nourishment. The 
presence of these insects forms an economic, 
factor in the health of a flock and the 
profit from it. Birds infected with para- 
sites do not grow as large, nor do adults 
lay as many or as large eggs, as when not 
infested. The parasites suck the blood of 
the fowls and disturb their rest at night. 
It is unnecessary for the poultryman to 
know all of these different species in order 
to protect his birds from them, but there 
are four common types which will be here 
discussed, namely: Lice (Fig. 210) ; mites; 
scaly legs; depluming mites. 

Lice. — These parasites are found more 
or less on nearly all birds. The strong, 
healthy fowl in clean quarters with ample 
space for dusting will probably not be 
bothered much. But lice seem to thrive best on weak, stunted 
birds, and intensify this weakness. They usually swarm over 
the body, alwaj r s producing a scurvy-like roughness of the skin, 
and sometimes destroying it. They cause diarrhoea and general 
debility, manifested by a pale comb and entire cessation of the 
reproductive function. Lice live on the waste material thrown 
off by the skin and feathers. They breathe through pores or 
openings in the sides of their bodies, and can be killed by filling 
these pores with fine powder, hence the custom of dusting with 
insect powder 

Sometimes the fowls are dipped or the houses fumigated, but 
these methods are not recommended, owing to the rumpling of the 




Fig. 210. — Body louse of 
the domestic fowl, Menopon 
biseriatum. Such lice live on 
the fowl's body all the time. 



508 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

bird's plumage after dipping, and to the impossibility of properly- 
fumigating without injuring the birds. 

A natural dust-bin should be provided for each flock in some 
dry, sheltered place, and it is a safe rule to dust the birds at least 
twice a year with some reliable insect powder, repeating the process 
twice, at intervals of a week or ten days, to catch the young lice, 
which ar-e still in the egg at the time of the first dusting. The 
powder should be liberally sprinkled from a metal box with per- 
forated cover, the birds being held by the feet, and the powder 





Fig 212. — The scalv-leg mite, 
Sarcoptes mutans. (Highly mag- 
Fiq. 211. — The red mite of do- nified.; 

mestic fowls, Dermanyssus galluias. 
Such mites stay on the fowl's body 
only at night; at other times they 
hide in cracks and crevices about the 
poultry house. (Highly magnified.) 

worked into the feathers with the fingers. Most of the lice will 
be found in the down near the vent, and these parts should be 
well dusted. 

Few of the commercial lice powders are reliable, but the fol- 
lowing can easily and quickly be made at home, and is sure death 
if properly applied. 

Take 3 parts of gasoline and 1 part of crude carbolic acid, 
90 to 95 per cent, strength. Mix these together, and stir in grad- 
ually enough plaster of Paris to absorb all the moisture, which 
will usually be about four quarts of plaster to one quart of liquid. 
Thorough mixing of the liquid and dry plaster will result in a dry, 
pinkish-brown powder with a fairly strong carbolic odor. 

A commercial apparatus for dusting fowls consists of a hollow 
cylinder in which the bird and powder are placed and revolved, 
after which the bird is immediately liberated. This is effective, 



POULTRY PARASITES 509 

but uncomfortable for the fowls from the dust getting into their 
eyes and mouth. 

Lice may be killed quickly and easily by spraying with crude 
petroleum. The fowl is suspended by one foot in a looped cord, 
and the spraying may be done with a simple air-gun sprayer. The 
process is rapid and very effective. 

Mites (Figs. 211 and 212) differ from lice in that they do not 
live on the bird's body all the time, but mass together in cracks 
and crevices under perches and in the walls, whence at night they 
crawl to the fowl and suck blood, returning to their hiding places 




Fig 213. — The work of the scaly-leg mite. Affected birds should be isolated and given 
immediate treatment to prevent spread of the mites. 

before the birds leave the perches. When full of blood they are 
red, hence the name of red mite or red spider. Spraying with 
strong kerosene emulsion or crude petroleum will kill all the mites 
it touches, hence it is well to have fixtures movable so one can 
get at all parts which might harbor these insects. Painting the 
perches with crude petroleum every few weeks, in warm weather, 
will keep mites in perfect control. 

Scaly Legs. — The form of scabies which affects the legs of 
fowls (Fig. 213) is due to a burrowing insect, which buries itself 
under the scales and secretes a calcareous material. This elevates 
the scales and gives them an uneven appearance, and in some 



510 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

places the leg enlarges to two or three times its normal diameter. 
This pest is readily communicated from fowl to fowl, hence the 
wisdom of destroying it wherever found. The treatment is to 
stand the bird in a pail of warm water, and allow the scales to 
soak up thoroughly, then carefully scrape off the crusts without 
making the legs bleed, after which wipe dry and apply carbolated 
vaseline once daily. Crude petroleum is very effective in mild 
cases. In bad cases it may be necessary to repeat the treatment, 
but ordinarily one soaking and frequent applications of vaseline 
will soon effect a cure. The treatment should be started on the 
first sign of trouble. 

Depluming Mites. — These are minute insects which live on the 
fowl, taking up their abode at the base of the quills, which they 
consume or damage so that the feathers subsequently fall out. 
If the condition persists, the feathers around the neck and head 
may all drop out. Treatment consists in rubbing crude petroleum 
or carbolated vaseline frequently into the parts of the skin infested. 

Other Pests. — Four other common pests are of less importance, 
but should be mentioned. Mosquitoes often attack fowls, and bite 
the face and comb and wattles, leaving a field for the infection by 
chicken pox. Treatment is the application of carbolated vaseline. 
Screening the roosting quarters is sometimes found advisable. 

Harvest mites abound along wet brushy places, and are common 
in the central southern part of this country. 

Bedbugs are also quite common in poultry houses. Turpentine 
added to the disinfecting solution previously mentioned will be 
found a preventive. 

Hen fleas will often be found in unsanitary houses; the treat- 
ment recommended for red mites will eradicate them. 

Internal Parasites. — There are two groups of internal parasites 
which embrace nearly all the types of economic importance, — 
namely, (1) parasites which find their way into the trachea of the 
bird and (2) intestinal parasites. 

The first group is represented by the gapeworm (Fig. 214), 
found only in little chicks, which when affected will stand around 
with drooping wings, gasping for breath. Gapeworms are little, 
reddish worms which fasten themselves on the wall of the trachea 
and suck blood from its mucous lining, causing inflammation. 
They are about half an inch in length, and may become so numerous 
as almost to stop the breathing. The disease is especially prevalent 
in the spring, the infection being transmitted in the soil from one 



POULTRY PARASITES 



511 



year to another. If the parasites are known to exist, the best 
procedure is to plow the ground and lime it thoroughly. Do not 
use it for young chicks for a year or two — not until some crop 
has been grown upon it, and the ground worked over considerably. 
When only a few chicks are affected, the worms can be extracted 
with a horsehair loop or commercial extractor. 




Fig. 214. — The gapeworm, Syngamus trachealis, of young chicks, attached to the inside of the 
trachea. A serious handicap to successful brooding when the soil becomes infested. 

Intestinal Worms. — Internal parasites are represented by two 
distinct kinds of intestinal worms, known as roundworm and tape- 
worm. The former are round, smooth worms (Fig. 215), tapering 
at each end, pointed in front and blunt in the rear. They derive 
their nourishment from the feed, and, if present in large numbers, 




Fig. 215. — The common roundworm, Heterakis perspicillum. When present in large 
numbers they are a serious hindrance to production. 



greatly impair the nutrition of the bird, perhaps interfering with 
digestion and causing obstruction. 

The best treatment is to give some drug which will cause them 
to loosen their hold on the lining of the intestine, and to follow 
this up with a laxative to expel them. For individual fowls one 
teaspoonful of oil of turpentine may be given one hour before 
feeding in the morning, and three hours later one teaspoonful of 
castor oil. 



512 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

The tapeworm (Fig. 216) represents the second type of intestinal 
parasites. If present in any number, they will be very detrimental 
to the flock, making the birds emaciated and weak and causing 
the feathers to lose their lustre. The treatment outlined for round- 
worms will also be beneficial with tapeworms. Frequent feeding 




33333aininirniDBitt 



^^mmimmmmjjjmnmmmnic cff 




Fig. 216. — The tapeworm. When tapeworms are present in any numbers they greatly 
impair the efficiency of the birds. 

of onions or garlic is said to be a preventive, and powdered pome- 
granate-root bark, at the rate of one teaspoonful to fifty birds, 
will help to expel them. 

ENEMIES OF POULTRY. 

There are predatory animals which, if given a chance or if 
they have once acquired the habit, will do great damage by killing 
poultry. Prevention is the only sure way of handling them. The 
rat probably ranks first as an enemy, killing a great number of 
young and growing chicks each year. Concrete floors and runs pro- 
tected by fine-mesh wire are the best means of keeping them away. 

Weasels and skunks also delight in killing birds and robbing 
nests wherever they find them, the weasel preying on growing 
chicks on the range during the day. Traps and the shotgun are 
here the best preventives. Poison, if judiciously handled, is one 
of the best modes of annihilating all four-legged enemies. 

Crows and some varieties of hawks carry off both young and 
adult birds. The crow is particularly adept in stealing young 
chicks. He usually alights on some tall pole or post in the vicinity 
of the chicken yard before swooping down for his prey. One of 
the best and surest ways of catching him is to place small steel 



REVIEW 513 

traps on the tops of some of the tallest poles in the vicinity, and 
he will soon be a captive. When killed and hung up in the centre 
of the plant, he serves as a warning to keep others away. 

Coops should be securely locked against a chance sneak thief; 
and, in case of systematic theft, the shotgun, combined with a 
good burglar alarm, gives the surest relief. A good dog is a most 
valuable asset on the poultry plant. He can be trained not 
only to watch the yards by night, but to protect the birds during 
the day. 

Occasionally cats and dogs get into the habit of killing birds, 
in which case the only sure remedy is to kill the offenders. 

REVIEW. 

1. What is fundamental to a practical knowledge of poultry diseases? 

2. Under what conditions is it desirable to treat diseased poultry? 

3. When is it not desirable to treat diseased poultry? 

4. Discuss prevention as compared with curing. 

5. Give three factors essential in maintaining a healthy flock. 

6. Define the word hygiene as used in this chapter. 

7. What three practices are essential to insure clean houses? 

8. Give the composition of a complete disinfecting solution, and tell of its 

effects. 

9. Discuss the effects of sunlight and of moisture in their relation to a sani- 

tary and hygienic house. 

10. Discuss clean feeding. 

11. What is the best practice to guarantee clean yards? 

12. Describe the external appearances of sickness, associated with many 

disorders. 

13. Give external symptoms of roup; tuberculosis; chicken pox; gapes. 

14. Outline method of making a post-mortem examination. 

15. Name five common poultry medicines; state method of use and effect. 

16. Name four common external parasites of poultry. 

17. Describe the effects of body lice. 

18. Describe a good method of spraying fowls for lice. What is used? 

19. Give the composition of a reliable, homemade powder for destroying lice. 

20. Describe the chicken mite and his manner of attack. 

21. Tell how to keep down the ravages of mites. 

22. What is meant by scaly legs? How can the trouble be cured? 

23. Are mosquitoes ever injurious to poultry? What are the effects? 

24. Describe and give method of combating two common intestinal parasites 

of poultry. 

25. Tell how to control the gapeworm. 

26. Name common diseases of the digestive system. 

27. Give a list of diseases of the hen's reproductive organs. 

28. What diseases affect the respiratory system? 

29. When is it desirable to practise poultry surgery? 

33 



514 DISEASES, PARASITES, AND ENEMIES 

30. Describe the procedure in treating cuts and wounds. 

31. What is bumble foot? Give its cause. 

32. How would you treat a frozen comb? 

33. Mention predaceous enemies of poultry, and tell how to control each. 

References. — Poultry Diseases and their Treatment, by Pearl, Surface, 
and Curtis, Maine Bulletin. Fowl Typhoid, by Cooper Curtice, Rhode Island 
Bulletin 87. Tapeworm Disease of Fowls, by Gage and Opperman, Maryland 
Bulletin 139. Tuberculosis in Fowls, by A. R. Ward, California Bulletin 161. 
Common Diseases of Fowls, their Control and Treatment, by F. D. Chester, 
Delaware Bulletin 47. Chicken Pox or Sore Head in Poultry, by C. A. Cary, 
Alabama Bulletin 136. Diseases of Chickens, by H. J. Milks, Louisiana Bulle- 
tin 108. Lice and Mites of Poultry, by Nathan Banks, U. S. Bureau of Ento- 
mology Circular 92. Tuberculosis, Fowl Cholera, Chicken Pox, and Roup, 
California Report, 1903. Asthenia (growing light in fowls), by Chas. F. Daw- 
son, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Report 15. Some Common Disinfec- 
tants, by M. Dorset, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 345. Gapes in Poultry, by H. 
Garman, Kentucky Bulletin 70. Causes of Death in Young Chickens, by 
C. K. Graham, Connecticut Bulletin 44. How to Destroy Rats, by D. E. 
Lantz, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 369. Disinfection and Commercial Disinfec- 
tants, by Ravenall and Smith, Wisconsin Bulletin 156. Infectious Diseases 
among Poultry, by D. E. Salmon, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 8. 
Healthy Poultry, in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 305. Lice on Poultry, in U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletin 435. Fowl Cholera, by A. R. Ward, California Bulletin 
156. Fowl Cholera, by P. B. Hadley, Rhode Island Bulletin 144. Avian 
Coccidiosis, by P. B. Hadley, Rhode Island Bulletin. The Chicken Mite, 
Mississippi Bulletin 78. Tuberculosis, by E. F. Pemot, Oregon Bulletin 64. 
Diseases of Chickens, by E. F. Pemot, Oregon Reading Course Bulletin 4. 
The Common Chicken Mite, by H. C. Pierce, Iowa Press Bulletin 19. 






I 


if^^S? 5 








^ig. 217. — Fowl with points named. 






0. 


Beak. 


9. Saddle feathers. 


IS. 


Flight coverts 


1. 


Single comb. 


10. Sickles. 


19. 


Fluff. 


2. 


Face. 


11. Lower sickles. 


20. 


Body. 


3. 


Wattles. 


12. Tail coverts. 


21. 


Thigh. 


4. 


Ear lobes. 


13. Main tail coverts. 


22. 


Knee-joint. 


5. 


Hackle. 


14. Wing bow. 


23. 


Shanks. 


6. 


Breast. 


15. Wing coverts. 


24. 


Spur. 


7. 


Back. 


16. Secondaries. 


25. 


Toes. 


S. 


Saddle. 


17. Primaries. 







515 



APPENDIX. 

MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Poultry Experiments, by Pearl and Surface, Maine Bulletins 117, 130, 144, 
157, 165 and 179. 

Poultry, by G. Allman, Department of Agriculture Western Australia, 
Bulletin 23. 

Poultry Raising, by W. E. Vaplon, Colorado Bulletin 164. 

Poultry Experiments, by T. I. Mairs, Pennsylvania Bulletin 87. 

Poultry Raising on the Farm, by D. E. Salmon, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 141. 

Care and Management of Poultry, by Sheppers and Dynes, North Dakota 
Bulletin 78. 

Poultry, by C. E. Brown, Minnesota Bulletin 119. 

The Hen's Place on the Farm, by Oscar Erf, Kansas Bulletin 150. 

The Poultry Industry in Maryland, by C. L. Opperman, Maryland 
Bulletin 138. 

Poultry in Pennsylvania, by T. E. Orr, Department of Agriculture of 
Pennsylvania, Bulletin 143. 

Farm Poultry, by W. S. Jacobs, Arkansas Bulletin 99. 

Farm Poultry, by Lloyd and Elser, Ohio Circular 118. 

Farm Poultry Management, by James E. Rice, New York Department of 
Agriculture Circular 11. 

Poultry Raising, by J. G. Halpin, Michigan Bulletin 245. 

Farm Poultry, by J. S. Jeffrey, North Carolina Bulletin 195. 

Poultry Management, by G. A. Bell, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 287. 

Poultry Keeping on the Farm, by F. S. Cooley, Montana Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 3. 

Profitable Poultry, Kansas State Board of Agriculture Bulletin 107. 

Farm Poultry, W. R. Graham, Ontario Bulletin 151. 

Methods of Poultry Management, by Raymond Pearl, U. S. Farmers' 
Bulletin 357. 

Poultry Management, by Stewart and Atwood, West Virginia Bulletin 115. 

Poultry as Food, by Helen Atwater, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 182. 



516 



APPENDIX 517 

ADDRESSES OF COLLEGES, EXPERIMENT STATIONS,ETC. 

(These devote time to educational and experimental work in poultry husbandry; in 
most cases bulletins or other publications are issued freely.) 

Alabama, Experiment Station, Auburn. 

Alabama, Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. 

Arizona, Experiment Station, Tucson. 

Arkansas, Experiment Station, Fayetteville. 

California, State College, Berkeley. 

Canada, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph. 

Colorado, Experiment Station, Fort Collins. 

Connecticut, Agricultural College, Storrs. 

Delaware, Experiment Station, Newark. 

Georgia, Experiment Station, Athens. 

Illinois, Experiment Station, Urbana. 

Indiana, Purdue University, Lafayette. 

Iowa, Agricultural College, Ames. 

Kansas, Agricultural College, Manhattan. 

Kansas, Department of Agriculture, Topeka. 

Kentucky, Experiment Station, Lexington. 

Louisiana, State Station, Baton Rouge. 

Maine, Agricultural College and Experiment Station, Orono. 

Maine, Department of Agriculture, Augusta. 

Maryland, Agricultural College, College Park. 

Massachusetts, Agricultural College, Amherst. 

Massachusetts, Board of Agriculture, Boston. 

Michigan, Agricultural College, East Lansing. 

Minnesota, University, St. Paul. 

Mississippi, Agricultural College, Agricultural College. 

Missouri, Experiment Station, Columbia. 

Missouri, Poultry Station, Mountain Grove. 

Montana, Experiment Station, Bozeman. 

Nebraska, Experiment Station, Lincoln. 

Nevada, Experiment Station, Reno. 

New Jersey, Agricultural College, New Brunswick. 

New South Wales, Department of Agriculture, Victoria. 

New York, Cornell Station, Ithaca. 

New Zealand, Department of Agriculture, Wellington. 

North Carolina, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh. 

North Carolina, College Station, West Raleigh. 

North Dakota, Experiment Station, Agricultural College. 

Ohio, Agricultural College, Columbus. 

Ohio, Experiment Station, Wooster. 

Oklahoma, Experiment Station, Stillwater. 

Oregon, Agricultural College, Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania, Agricultural College, State College. 

Pennsylvania, Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg. 

Rhode Island, Agricultural College, Kingston. 

South Carolina, Experiment Station, Clemson College. 

South Dakota, Agricultural College, Brookings. 

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Utah, Experiment Station, Logan. 

Virginia, Experiment Station, Blacksburg. 

Washington, Experiment Station, Pullman. 

West Virginia, Experiment Station, Morgantown. 

Wisconsin, Agricultural College, Madison. 



518 



NUTRIENTS IN FODDERS AND FEED STUFFS 



Table XVIII. — Pounds of Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in Different 
Quantities of Fodders and Feed Stuffs. 



"o 


a 


'3 






_ el 


o 








>-2 

_ si 


Xl 






cS-S 


01 


3^-" 


Xi 


Jr ^ 


CB^ 


"3 


3^ 


a 


Q 


Ph 


o 


fe 


fe 


i-l 


Q fu 


o 


fe 


PH 


Alfalfa, 


green, 


nutritive ratio 1 : 2.3. 




Brewer' 


s grains, dry, nutritive ratio 1 : 


3.0. 


1 


0.2 


0.04 


0.07 0.006 


231 


1 


0.92 0.16 


0.37 


0.05 


1200 


2 


.4 


.07 


.15 


.01 


462 


2 


1.84 .32 


.73 


.10 


2400 


3 


.6 


.11 


.22 


.02 


693 


3 


2.76 .48 


1.10 


.15' 


3600 


4 


.8 


.15 


.29 


.02 


924 


4 


3.68 .64 


1.47 


.20 


4800 


5 


1.0 


.19 


.37 


.03 


1155 


5 


4.60 .80 


1.83 


.25 


6000 


Alfalfa 


iay or meal (best) nutritive ratio 1:3.3. 


Brewer's grains, wet, 


nutritive ratio 1 


: 3.2. 


1 


.89 


.14 


.37 


.02 


1033 


1 


.24 .04 


.09 


.01 


330 


2 


1.78 


.27 


.74 


.03 


2066 


2 


.49 .08 


.19 


.03 


660 


3 


2.67 


.41 


1.11 


.05 


3099 


3 


.73 .12 


.28 


.04 


990 


4 


3.56 


.55 


1.48 


.06 


4132 


4 


.97 .16 


.37 


.06 


1320 


5 


4.45 


.69 


1.85 


.08 


5165 


5 


1.21 .20 


.46 


.07 


1650 


Barley, 


green, 


nutritive ratio 1 : 5.8. 




Buttermilk, nutritive ratio 1 


: 1.4. 




1 


.28 


.02 


.10 




242 


1 


.10 .04 


.04 




179 


2 


.56 


.04 


.20 


.01 


484 


2 


.19 .08 


.09 


.01 " 


358 


3 


.84 


.06 


.31 


.01 


726 


3 


.29 .12 


.13 


.01 


537 


4 


1.12 


.08 


.41 


.02 


968 


4 


.39 .16 


.18 


.02 


716 


5 


1.40 


.10 


.51 


.02 


1210 


5 


.48 .20 


.22 


.02 


895 


Barley meal, sifted, nutritive ratio 1 


6.2. 


Cheese, 


cottage, nutritive ratio 1 : 0.J 




y-i 


.46 


.06 


.33 


.01 


705 


1 


.28 .21 


.04 


.01 


507 


i 


.93 


.11 


.66 


.02 


1410 


2 


.56 .42 


.09 


.02 


1014 


2 


1.96 


.23 


1.31 


.04 


2820 


3 


.84 .63 


.13 


.03 


1521 


3 


2.79 


.34 


1.97 


.06 


4230 


4 


1.12 .84 


.17 


.04 


2028 


4 


3.72 


.45 


2.62 


.07 


5640 


5 


1.40 1.05 


.22 


.05 


2535 


5 
Barley 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
Beans, 


4.65 .56 3.28 

rolled, nutritive ratio 

.9 .09 .60 

1.8 .19 1.19 

2.7 .28 1.79 

3.6 .37 2.38 

4.5 .47 2.98 

nutritive ratio 1 : 2.9. 


.09 

1 : 6.9. 

.02 

.04 

.07 

.09 

.11 


10059 

1370 
2740 
4110 
5480 
6850 


Clover seeds, bur, nutritive r 
y 2 .46 .08 .19 

1 .93 .17 .39 

2 1.87 .34 1.77 

3 2.80 .52 1.16 

4 3.74 .68 1.55 

5 4.67 .86 1.93 


atio 1 : 2.8. 
.02 610 
.04 1221 
.09 2442 
.13 3663 
.17 4884 
.21 6105 


1 


.87 


.17 


.49 


.01 


1272 


Clover, 


green, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.9. 




2 


1.75 


.35 


.97 


.02 


2544 


1 


.23 .03 


.09 




256 


3 


2.62 


.52 


1.46 


.03 


3816 


2 


.46 .07 


.18 


.01 


512 


4 


3.49 


.69 


1.94 


.04 


5088 


3 


.69 .10 


.27 


.01 


768 


5 


4.73 


.87 


2.43 


.05 


6360 


4 


.92 .14 


.36 


.02 


1024 


Blood, 


dried, 


nutritive ratio 


1 : 0.11 




5 


1.15 .17 


.45 


.02 


1280 


y* 

1 


.45 


.36 


.03 


.005 


746 


Corn, cracked, nutritive ratio 1 : 8.5. 




.90 


.72 


.06 


.01 


1493 


1 


.89 .08 


.63 


.04 


1524 


2 


1.81 


1.44 


.12 


.02 


2986 


2 


1.79 .17 


1.27 


.08 


3048 


3 


2.72 


2.16 


.18 


.03 


4479 


3 


2.68 .26 


1.91 


.13 


4572 


4 


3.62 


2.88 


.24 


.04 


5972 


4 


3.48 .34 


2.55 


.17 


6096 


5 


4.53 


3.60 


.30 


.05 


7475 


5 


4.47 .43 


3.19 


.21 


7620 


Bone, 


ooultry 










Cracklings, nutritive ratio 1 


: 2.4. 




M 


.4/9' 


.14 




.015 


324 


H 


.47 .23 




.23 


1364 


1 


.92 


.28 




.03 


648 


1 


.94 .43 




1.46 


2728 


2 


1.84 


.56 




.06 


1296 


2 


1.88 .86 




.92 


5456 


3 


2.76 


.84 




.09 


1944 


3 


2.82 1.29 




1.38 


8184 


4 


3.68 


1.12 




.12 


2592 


4 


3.76 1.72 




1.84 


10912 


5 


4.60 


1.40 




.15 


3240 


5 


4.70 2.15 




2.30 


13640 


Bran, 


rice, nutritive ratio 1 : 


5.9. 




Feed fl 


sur, nutritive ratio 1 


: 8. 




1 


.89 


.10 


.42 


.10 


1424 


1 


.88 .09 


.67 


.01 


1465 


2 


1.78 


.20 


.84 


.20 


2848 


2 


1.76 .17 


1.25 


.02 


2930 


3 


2.67 


.30 


1.26 


.30 


4272 


3 


2.64 .26 


2.02 


.03 


4395 


4 


3.56 


.40 


1.68 


.40 


5696 


4 


3.52 .35 


2.70 


.04 


5860 


5 


4.45 


.50 


2.00 


.50 


7120 


5 


4.40 .44 


3.37 


.05 


7325 


Bran, 


wheat, 


nutritive ratio 1 : 4.3. 




Kale, green, nutritive ratio ! 


: 11.5. 




1 


.88 


.11 


.42 


.02 . 


1070 


1 


.15 .03 


.10 




263 


2 


1.76 


.22 


.84 


.05 


2140 


2 


.30 .05 


.20 


.01 


526 


3 


2.64 


.34 


1.26 


.07 


3210 


3 


.45 .08 


.30 


.01 


789 


4 


3.53 


.45 


1.69 


.10 


4280 


4 


.60 .10 


.40 


.02 


1052 


5 


4.41 


.56 


2.11 


.12 


5350 


5 


.75 .13 


.50 


.02 


1315 



APPENDIX 



519 



o a 


'3 


•si 




>° 


-° a 


h 


a)J3 


03 


=> w 


*1 Q 


fc 


o 


tn 


&H 


Lettuce, green 


, nutritive ratio 1 : 6. 




1 0.05 


0.01 


0.03 




97 


2 .11 


.02 


.06 




194 


3 .16 


.04 


.09 


0.01 


291 


4 .21 


.05 


.12 


.01 


388 


5 .27 


.06 


.15 


.02 


485 


Malva, green, 


nutritive ratio 1 : 7.3 




1 .20 


.06 


.10 


.01 


302 


2 .41 


.13 


.19 


.02 


604 


3 .61 


.19 


.29 


.03 


906 


4 .81 


.26 


.39 


.04 


1208 


5 1.02 


.32 


.49 


.05 


1510 


Meal, coconu 


t oil 


cake, 


nutritive 


ratio 


1 : 3.9. 










^4 .43 


.08 


.21 


.05 


750 


1 .86 


.16 


.42 


.10 


1500 


2 1.72 


.33 


.85 


.20 


3000 


3 2.58 


.49 


1.27 


.30 


4500 


4 3.44 


.66 


1.70 


.40 


6000 


5 4.30 


.82 


2.12 


.50 


7500 


Meal, corn, nutritive ratio 1 


: 11.5. 




1 .88 


.06 


.66 


.03 


1266 


2 1.76 


.13 


1.32 


.07 


2532 


3 2.64 


.19 


1.99 


.10 


3798 


4 3.52 


.26 


2.65 


.13 


5064 


5 4.40 


.32 


3.31 


.17 


6330 


Meal, cottonseed oil 


cake, 


nutritive 


ratio 


1 : 1.0. 










X -45 


.21 


.08 


.06 


381 


1 .90 


.41 


.15 


.11 


762 


2 1.80 


.82 


.31 


.22 


1524 


3 2.70 


1.23 


.46 


.33 


2286 


4 3.60 


1.64 


.62 


.44 


3048 


5 4.50 


2.05 


.77 


.55 


3610 


Meal, gluten, 


nutritive ratio 1 : 2.9. 




X -46 


.13 


.22 


.07 


938 


1 .92 


.26 


.43 


.14 


1876 


2 1.84 


.52 


.87 


.28 


3752 


3 2.75 


.77 


1.30 


.42 


5628 


4 3.67 


1.03 


1.73 


.56 


7504 


5 4.59 


1.29 


2.16 


.70 


9380 


Meal, linseed oil (n.p. 


) nutritive ratio 1 


: 2.0. 


X .45 


.13 


.19 


.03 


722 


1 .89 


.26 


.38 


.07 


1444 


2 1.78 


.52 


.77 


.13 


2888 


3 2.67 


.78 


1.15 


.20 


4332 


4 3.56 


1.04 


1.54 


.26 


5772 


5 4.45 


1.30 


1.92 


.33 


7206 


Meal, soy bean, nutritive ratio 1 : 0.9 


i. 


X .45 


.20 


.12 


.03 


719 


1 .90 


.40 


.23 


.07 


1439 


2 1.80 


.80 


.45 


.13 


2878 


3 2.70 


1.20 


.67 


.19 


4317 


4 3.60 


1.60 


.90 


.26 


5756 


5 4.50 


2.00 


1.12 


.33 


7195 


Meat, fresh, nutritive ratio 


1 : 0.4. 




X -13 


.1 




.01 


114 


1 .26 


.2 




' .03 


228 


2 .53 


.4 




.06 


456 


3 .79 


.6 




.08 


684 


4 1.06 


.8 




.11 


912 


5 1.32 


1.00 




.14 


1140 


Meat scrap, 


first quality, 


nutritive 


ratio 


1 : 0.27. 










X -47 


.27 


.04 


.02 


661 


1 .94 


.54 


.07 


.03 


1322 


2 1.89 


1.08 


.14 


.07 


2644 


3 28.4 


1.62 


.21 


.10 


3966 



^ . Q fc O Pb, 

Meat scrap, first quality, nutritive 
1 : 0.27. 

4 3.78 2.16 0.28 0.14 

5 4.73 2.70 .35 .17 
Milk, dried, nutritive ratio 1 : 0.4. 



.45 
.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 



.26 
.51 
1.02 
1.54 
2.05 
2.56 



.08 
.16 
.32 
.48 
.64 
.80 



.01 
.02 
.04 
.05 
.06 



Milk, skim, nutritive ratio 1 : 1.8. 



.09 
.18 
.28 
.37 
.47 



.03 
.06 
.10 
.13 
.16 



.05 
.11 
.16 
.21 
.27 



Millet, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.2. 



.46 
.92 
1.84 
2.77 
3.69 
4.61 



.10 
.20 
.39 
.59 

.78 



.18 

.35 

.69 

1.04 

1.39 

1.73. 



Mixed feed, nutritive ratio 1 



1.79 
2.68 
3.58 

4.47 



.10 
.19 
.29 
.38 

.48 



.47 

.95 

1.42 

1.89 

2.37 



Oats, nutritive ratio 1 : 6.2. 



.47 

.95 

1.42 

1.89 

2.37 

Peas, nutritive ratio 1 : 2.7. 
.26 
.51 
1.02 
1.53 
2.05 
2.56 



1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 



.45 
.90 

1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 



.09 
.18 
.28 
.37 
.46 



.10 
.19 
.38 
.57 
.76 
.95 



Rice, nutritive ratio 1 : 12.8. 



1.75 
2.63 
3.51 
4.38 



.05 
.11 
.16 
.21 
.26 



1.35 
2.03 
2.70 
3.38 



.005 

.02 
.04 
.08 
.11 
.15 
.19 
: 5.6. 
.03 
.06 
.09 
.12 
.15 

.04 
.08 
.13 
.17 
.21 



.03 



.01 
.01 
.02 



1.76 
2.64 
3.53 
4.41 



.12 
.24 
.37 
.49 
.61 



.53 
1.07 
1.60 
2.13 
2.57 



.04 
.08 
.11 
.15 
.19 



ratio 

5288 
6610 

650 
1300 
2600 
3900 
5200 
6500 

268 

536 

804 

1072 

1340 

586 
1173 
2346 
3519 
4692 
5865 

1186 
2372 
3558 
4744 
5930 

1042 
2084 
3126 
4168 
5210 

335 
670 
1340 
2010 
2680 
3350 

1378 
2756 
4134 
5512 
6890 



Wheat middlings, nutritive ratio 1 : 5.1. 



Wheat, plump, nutritive ratio 1 : 6.9. 



1.77 
2.66 
3.54 
4.43 



.09 
.18 
.28 
.37 
.46 



.61 
1.22 
1.83 
2.44 
3.05 



.01 
.02 
.04 
.05 
.06 



1378 
2756 
4134 
5512 
6990 

1354 
2708 
4062 
5416 
6770 



Wheat, shrunken, nutritive ratio 1 : 4.6. 



.92 
1.83 
2.75 
3.67 
4.58 



.13 
.26 
.40 
.53 
.66 



.57 
1.15 
1.72 
2.30 
2.87 



.02 
.04 
.05 
.07 
.09 



1386 
2772 
4158 
5544 
6930 



520 APPENDIX 

Table XIX. — Average Weight and Volume of Different Feed Stuffs. 

One qt. One lb. 

weighs measures 

(pounds), (quarts). 

Barley meal 1.1 0.9 

Barley, whole 1.5 0.7 

Bone meal 2.0 0.5 

Brewer's dried grains 0.6 1.7 

Beef scrap 1.3 0.8 

Corn-and-cob meal 1.4 0.7 

Corn-and-oat feed 0.7 1.4 

Corn bran 0.5 2.0 

Corn meal 1.5 0.7 

Corn, whole 1.7 0.6 

Cottonseed meal 1.5 0.7 

Distiller's dried grains 0.5-0.7 1.0-1.4 

Germ oil meal 1.4 0.7 

Gluten feed 1.3 0.8 

Gluten meal 1.7 0.6 

Hominy meal 1.1 0.9 

Linseed meal, new process -. 0.9 1.1 

Linseed meal, old process 1.1 0.9 

Malt sprouts . 0.6 1.7 

Mixed feed (bran and middlings) 0.6 1.7 

Oat. feed (variable mixture) 0.8 1.3 

Oat middlings 1.5 0.7 

Oats, ground 0.7 1.4 

Oats, whole 1.0 1.0 

Rye feed (bran and middlings) 1.3 0.8 

Rye meal 1.5 0.7 

Rye, whole 1.6 0.6 

Soy-bean meal 1.3 0.8 

Wheat bran 0.5 2.0 

Wheat, ground 1.7 0.6 

Wheat middlings (flour) 1.2 0.8 

Wheat middlings 0.8 1.3 

Wheat, whole 1.9 0.5 

Table XX. — Poultry Journals. 
(Alphabetically arranged by States, with Canadian papers at the last.) 

Union Poultry Journal Fort Smith, Ark. 

Poultry Journal Haywood, Cal. 

Pacific' Poultry Craft Los Angeles, Cal. 

*Poultry Journal Petaluma, Cal. 

Pacific Fanciers' Monthly . .San Jose, Cal. 

Intermountain Poultry Advocate Colorado Springs, Col. 

Southern Fancier Atlanta, Ga. 

Southern Pit Games (sport) Blakely, Ga. 

Western Poultry Advocate Lewiston, Idaho. 

American Hen Magazine Chicago, 111. 

♦American Poultry Journal Chicago, 111. 

Successful Poultry Journal Chicago, 111. 

Poultry Tribune < Mount Morris, 111. 

* Specially recommended. 



POULTRY JOURNALS 521 

Modern Poultry Peoria, 111. 

*Poultry Peotone, 111. 

Poultry Keeper Quincy, 111. 

*Reliable Poultry Journal Quincy, 111. 

Standard and Poultry World Quincy, III. 

Poultry Post Goshen, Ind. 

*Inland Poultry Journal Indianapolis, Ind. 

Game Bird Tell City, Ind. 

Western Poultry Journal Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 

Golden Egg Des Moines, Iowa. 

Egg Reporter Waterloo, Iowa. 

Poultry Culture Topeka, Kans. 

Poultry Ideas Louisville, Ky. 

Atlantic Poultry Journal Baltimore, Md. 

American Stock Keeper Boston, Mass. 

*Farm Poultry Boston, Mass. 

Profitable Poultry Boston, Mass. 

Michigan Poultry Breeder Battle Creek, Mich. 

Poultry Pointers Kalamazoo, Mich. 

National Barred Rock Journal Union City, Mich. 

Poultry Herald St. Paul, Minn. 

Useful Poultry Journal Trenton, Mo. 

American Poultryman Lincoln, Nebr. 

Poultry Topics Lincoln, Nebr. 

Poultry News Newark, N. J. 

*American Poultry World Buffalo, N. Y. 

Poultry Review Elmira, N. Y. 

Ancona World Franklinville, N. Y. 

Feathered Warrior (Game fowl) Lisle, N. Y. 

* American Poultry Advocate Syracuse, N. Y. 

*Poultry Husbandry Waterville, N. Y. 

Southern Poultry Review Charlotte, N. Y. 

Poultry Record Carey, Ohio. 

City Farmer Columbus, Ohio. 

Poultry Success Springfield, Ohio. 

Northwestern Poultry Journal Salem, Oreg. 

Keystone Poultry Journal (quarterly) Beaver Springs, Pa. 

Poultry and Incubator News Garrettford, Pa. 

Poultry Yard Phoenixville, Pa. 

Happy Hen ,. Pittsburg, Pa. 

Poultry and Farm Review Pittsburg, Pa. 

Game Fowl Monthly Sayre, Pa. 

Poultry Fancier Sellersville, Pa. 

*Poultry Item Sellersville, Pa. 

Grit and Steel Gaffney, S. C. 

Progressive Poultry Journal Mitchell, S. Dak. 

Industrious Hen Knoxville, Tenn. 

Southern Poultry Magazine Nashville, Tenn. 

Poultry Life of America Belton, Tex. 

Southern Poultry Journal Dallas, Tex. 

Southern Poultryman Dallas, Tex. 

Texas Poultry Journal Houston, Tex. 

West Texas Journal Loraine, Tex. 

i 

*Specially recommended. 



522 APPENDIX 

Pacific Poultryman Seattle, Wash. 

Feathered World Walla Walla, Wash. 

Geflugel Zuchter (German) Hamburg, Wis. 

Advance Poultry Journal La Crosse, Wis. 

National Partridge Wyandotte Journal Milton, Wis. 

Profitable Poultry Milton, Wis. 

Successful Poultryman Victoria, B. C. 

Fruit Grower, Market and Poultryman '. , Grimsby, Ontario. 

Canadian Poultry News Owen Sound, Ontario. 

Canadian Poultry Review Toronto, Ontario. 

Poultry Advocate Toronto, Ontario. 



INDEX 



Accessibility of products, 427 
Accounting, methods of, 464 

column system, 465 
Accounts, what they show, 463 
Acquiring stock, methods, 100 
Advertisement, preparation, 469 

size of, 470 
Advertising, 467 

profit from, 470, 473 

ways of, 467 

what, 468 

when, 468 

where, 468 
Age of stock, 101 
Agricultural Colleges, list, 517 

train, 2 
Aim in breeding, 223 
Air cell, location and formation, 302 
Albumin, secretion, 302 

structure, 304 
Alfalfa, composition of, 197 
Alleys, disadvantages of, 152 

location, 152 

usage, 151 
American Class, breeds of, 71 

Poultry Association, 
membership, 26 

standard of perfection, 
use of, 67 
value of, 225 
Anatomy of the fowl, 292 
Ancestry of domestic fowl, 63 

records of, 283 
Anconas, mottled, 74 

origin of, 73 
Animal feeds, value of, 194 

meal, usage, 195 
Appearance, value of, 54 

uniform flocks, 98 
Appetites, indication of performance, 254 
Appliances, location of, 130 

for feeding, 206 
Aseel fowl, 64 

description of, 64 
Ash defined, 170 

for chicks, 360 

for egg production, 181 



Ash, function of, 173 

in eggs, 305 

in fowl's body, 170 

in grains, 202 

sources of, 172 
Asiatic Class, breeds of, 71 
Assimilation, 173 

Associations for holding exhibits, 483 
Atavism, example of, 240 

defined, 240 

factors affecting, 241 

kinds of, 241 
Austria-Hungary, poultry in, 39 

B 

Baby chicks, 443 

chick boxes, 444 
Balanced rations defined, 209 

value of same, 209 
Bantams, types and uses, 77 
Barley, composition of, 193 

value and usage, 191 
Barred Plymouth Rocks, origin of, 71 
Bedbugs, 510 
Beets, composition, 200 

usage, 199 

varieties, 199 
Beginning, manner of, 61 
Beheading, 413 

Belgium, poultry keeping in, 38 
Belle of Jersey, record, 259 
Bibliography, miscellaneous, 516 
Bichloride of mercury, use of, 506 
Birds compared with other animals, 169 

importance of clean, 499 

preparation for exhibition, 477 

sale of, 473 

selection of, 101 
Blood, dried, 195 
Blue Andalusian, origin of, 73 
Body characters, relation to functional activ- 
ity, 242 

composition of, 170 

lice on, 507 
Bolts for foundation, 127, 12S 
Bone, composition of, 185, 196, 202 

cutter, 206 

dry ground, 201 

523 



524 



INDEX 



Bone, fresh cut, 201 

value of products, 195 
Boning fowl, 420 
Bracing corner fence posts, 163 
Brahma, origin of, 71 
Bran for chicks, 359 
Brassiness, cause of, 263 
Bread, usage, 188 
Breed, adaptation of, 100 

definition, 69 

shapes, 68 
Breeder, problems of, 223 
Breeders, age of, 284 

care during growth, 289 

feed for, 286 

selection of, 282 
Breeding, aim in, 223 

art of, 221 

color pattern, 260, 262 

complexity of, 221 

controlling factors, 226 

demand for, 99 

effect of environment on, 227 

for eggs, rules for, 252 

for meat, 258 

from pullets, 284 

fundamentals of, 225 

laws of, 229 

mass vs. individual, 2S1 

objects of, 245 

principles of, 221, 225, 245 

records, 454 

science of, 221 

stock, management of, 2S1, 291 
Breeds, description of, 71 

number of, 66 
Broiler, breeds for, 381 

classification of, 378 

cost of, 3S3 

defined, 278 

features of, 380 

management, 382 

possibilities of, 27 

prices, 383 

profits, 383 

raising, 377 

seasons, 379 

types, 379 
Broilers, chapter on, 376-402 

dressing, 418 

undesirable, 445 

uniformity of, 382 
Brooder, colony, 353 

gasoline, 354, 355 

houses, 348, 349 

portable, 352 



Brooder, preparation of, 356 

record, 460 

requirements, 356 

systems of heating, 365 
Broodiness, indications of, 315 

natural function, 314 
Brooding, artificial, 348-367 

coops for, 323 

deaths in, 363 

natural, 312, 322 

temperature, 357 
Broody coops, 148, 151 

hen, care of, 274 
Broom corn, 192 
Buckwheat, composition of, 193 

value and usage, 191 
Buildings, arrangement of, 53 

investment in, 60 
Bulk, need of, 210 
Bumble foot, 504 
Business, adapting to location, 54 

poultry keeping as a, 22 

risks in, 34 



Cabbage, composition of, 200 

value and usage, 200 
Caldron, location and usage, 206 
Calomel, uses, 505 
Candling, 438 

Cannibalism, prevention of, 364 
Capacity of poultry houses, 108 
Capital, adjustment of, 59 

amount required, 28 

classification of, 58 

defined, 58 
Capon, advantages of, 390 

and cockerel compared, 401 

appearance, 400 

breeds suited for, 392 

definition of, 390 

farming, centres of, 19 

marketing, 399 

markets, 392 
Caponizing, age for, 393 

instruments, 393 

operation, 395 

practice of, 400 

preparation for, 394 

profits from, 400 

slips, 398 

technique of, 396-397 

where to cut, 395 
Capons, chapter on, 376-402 
Carbohydrates, composition of, 172 



INDEX 



525 



Carbohydrates defined, 171 

function of, 172 

in feeds, 172 
Card for labor record, 462 
Care during molt, 286 
Castor oil, uses, 505 
Catechu, uses, 505 
Cayenne, uses, 505 
Cell defined, 294 

Centres of poultry production, 11 
Chalazse, location and function, 304 
Characters, inherited, 369 
Charcoal, value, 212 
Cheapness vs. economy, 210 
Chicks, banding of, 322 

care of, 323 
- death of, 363 

early feeding of, 373 

feeding, 358, 361 

formation of, 300, 307 

marking, 322 

parasites on, 324 

rations for, 324 

transferring, 357 

weaning, 324 
Chilling chicks, 363 
Cinders for foundation, 126 
Circulating capital defined, 58 
Circulatory system, distribution of, 297 
Class defined, 69 
Classification of fowl, biological, 65 

standard and utility, 66 

utility, 78 
Clavicles, description of, 294 
Clean birds, 499 

feeding, 498 

housing, 497 

yards, 499 
Cleaning poultry houses, 498 
Cleanliness as related to health, 271 

how maintained, 272 

importance of spraying, 273 

in designing fixtures, 143 

in the sitting coop, 320 
Climate, proper conditions of, 48 
Cloaca, location and function, 297 
Closets, roosting, 145 
Clover, composition of, 197 
Cochin, origin of, 72 
Cold, effect of, 109 
Collateral reading, 5 
Colony brooders, 353 

system defined, 46 
possibilities of, 47 
Color, breeding for, 261 

harmony defined, 263 



Color harmony, existence of, 263 

value when choosing stock, 102 
Column system in accounting, 465 
Combs, frozen, 505 
Commission merchant, selling to, 423 
Communication, means of, 43 

need of, 42 
Community house, 46 

system defined, 45 
possibilities of, 46 
Comparison judging, 487 

profiting from, 474 
Composition of bird's body, 169, 170 
Concrete fence posts, 162 

floor, advantages of, 117 
construction, 108, 117, 118 
use of, 110 

floors, 131 

foundations, 126-127 

posts, 162 
Conditioning, 478 
Consumer, selling to, 423 
Contour of land, 49 
Convenience in poultry houses, 106 
Cooling, 417 

in incubation, 340 
Cooperation in Denmark, 38 

value of, 40 
Cooperative marketing, 449 
Corn as a food, 179 

composition of, 193 

function and usage, 185 

meal, composition of, 193 
usage, 186 
Cornell rations for layers, 219 
Cornish fowl, possibilities of, 93 
Correlation, body characters and function, 
258 

law of, 241 

vitality and body characters, 256 
Correspondence courses, 3 
Cost of standard-bred birds, 98 
Cottonseed meal, 192 
Cow, hen compared with, 222 
Cramming, 408 

machine, usage, 40S 
Crate fattening, 404, 405 
Creaminess, causes of, 263 
Crop, location and function, 297 

rotation, 159, 160, 372 
Cross-breeding defined, 246 

object of, 246 
Crosses, reciprocal, 250 
Crowding chicks, 363 

effect on •vigor, 256 
Crows, 512 



526 

Curtains for laying houses, 120 
Customers' interests, 426 

D 

Dampness, bad effect of, 48 
Danish egg packing industry, 39 

poultry house, 38 
Delivery of products, 427 
Demand vs. supply, 32 
Denmark, poultry farming in, 3S 
Depluming mites, 510 
Dermanyssus gallinae, 50S 
Design of houses, simplicity of, 111 

to insure economy of labor, 53 
Details, importance of, 273 
Diagnosis of disease, 500, 501 
Diary, 463 
Digestibility, factors affecting, 174 

ground grains, 1S1 
Digestion coefficient defined, 174 

experiments, what they show, 170, V, 

relation of food to, 173 
Digestive system, organs of, 296 

tract, 296 
Dimorphism, sexual, 261 
Disease, diagnosis, 500, 501 

inheritance of, 227 

of poultry, 503 

prevention of, 497 

transmission by water, 499 

treating, 496 

when to treat, 496 
Diseases, 496 
Disinfecting solution, 498 
Dislocating neck, 410 
Disposition of egg breeds, 79 

of general-purpose breeds, 87 

of meat breeds, 84 
Distribution of poultry, 10 
Doctoring poultry, 496 
Dominant, how to test for, 232 

meaning in Mendel's law, 231 
Doors, 119 
Dorking, origin of, 73 

possibility of, 93 
Double matings, example of, 261 

yarding, advantages of, 159 
methods of, 160 
Drainage, 51 

air, 51 

soil, 50 

surface, 50 

under foundation, 126 

Dressed poultry, marketing, 444 

score card for, 491 



INDEX 



Dressing, 417 

Drinking vessels, design, 155 
location, 155 

Dropping boards, location and design, 146 

Droppings, care of, 272 

Dry-mash, California, 219 
Cornell, 219 

mixer, location and usage, 206 
New Jersey State (summer^, 217 
New Jersey State (winter), 216 
possibilities, 213 

Dry picking, 411, 413, 415 

Duck raising, rise of, 21 

Dust boxes, 151 

Dusting material, 152 



Economic factors, adjustment of, 58 
Economy in handling layers, 275 
Educational associations, 4 

exhibitions, 476 
Egg breeds as sitters, 80 
circles, 450 
classification of, 78 
composition of, 196 
description of type, 78 
disposition of, 79 
dry matter in, 305 
eating, cause of, 279 

prevention of, 279 
exhibits, 473 
expulsion of, 302 
farming, combinations with, 26 

locations for, 44 
fertilization of, 301 s 

foraging abilities, 80 
formation of, 300 
grades of, 440 
hardiness of, 80 
maturity of, 79 
ovens, Egyptian, 326 
packages, 436 
pail, 287 
parts of, 302 

passage down oviduct, 301 
preservation, 441 

producing States, conditions in, 11 
production, as affected by physical 
condition, 180 

as affected by temperature, 266 

breeding for, 252 

controlling factors in, 267 

distribution of, 235 

feeding for, 176 

from pure breeds, 96 






INDEX 



527 



Egg production, how improved, 235, 278 
leading States in, 11 
of meat breeds, 85 
small flock, 25 

records, importance of, 278 

type denned, 257 
meaning of, 71 
scoring for, 490 
Eggs, collection, 287, 432 

composition of, 305 

fertility of, 306 

for food, 429 

for hatching, effect of age, 289 
effect of temperature, 288 
keeping, 288 

grading, 432 

hatching, 428 

Infertile, 437 

malformed, causes of, 305 

market classification, 433 

number under one hen, 318 

packing, 435 

preventable losses in, 437 

prices, 429 

putting in incubator.. 336 

scoring, 492 

selection, 287, 432 

shipping, 436 

storage of, 442 

testing of, 320, 343 

uniformity from pure breeds, 97, 434 

use of artificial, 279 

value for feeding, 197 

yields, amount of, 278 
Eggshell, composition and function, 303 
Egyptian egg ovens, 326 
Embryo, development of, 199, 307, 308, 
309, 438 

location of, 302 
Employment, poultry keeping as an, 22 
Enemies, 512 

England, poultry farming in, 35 
English classes, breeds comprising, 73 
Environment, effect on breeding, 227 

effect on egg production, 104, 268 

for young stock, 369 
Epiblast defined, 307 
Epsom salts, 505 
Equipment, amount of, 60 

choice of, 60 

for feeding, 204 
Evaporation in incubation, 341 
Examination, post-mortem, 502 
Exercise, effect of insufficient, 256. 
during winter, 271 
for chicks, 361 



Exercise, how induced, 108 

importance in breeding, 180, 228 
Exhibiting, 473 

care at show, 482 
Exhibition, arrangement of, 485 

development of, 474 

for pleasure, 473 

preparing for, 477 

training for, 477 

type of, 475 
Exclusive poultry farming defined, 26 
Experience, value of, 58 
Experiment stations, list of, 517 
Extension teaching defined, 2 
methods of, 3 



Factors affecting breeding, 226 

bringing greater profits, 35 
Fallacies in breeding, 264 
Family use, poultry for, 24 
Fancier, opportunities of the, 27 
Fancy breeds, classification of, 94 
purposes of, 94 

points, breeding for, 25 
poultry keeping for, 25 

poultry farming, location for, 45 

qualities defined, 94 
Farm flock, frontispiece 
Fat, amount in birds, 171 

appearance and prevalence in feeds, 171 

as related to laying condition, 180 

defined, 170 

function of, 172 

uses of, in the body, 170 
Fattening, chapter on, 403-420 

feeding for, 175 

methods of, 403 
Feathers, care of, 448 

growth in embryo, 310 

marketing, 448 
Features essential in poultry houses, 105 
Fecundity, inheritance of, 233 
Feed for breeders, 286 

trough, 153 

wagon, 207 
Feed-house design, 204 
Feeding appliances, 206 

chicks, 358 

clean, 498 

during the winter, 270 

effect of heavy, 256 

effect on egg production, 268 

equipment, 204 

importance of regularity, 212 



528 



INDEX 



Feeding, objects of, 175 
practice of, 204 
principles of, 169 
records, 459, 461 

standards, their practicability, 176 
stuffs, weight and volume, 520 
systems of, 212 
Feeds, animal, 194 

as related to product, 178 
for poultry, 184 
must carry variety, 180 
natural, 179 
ready mixed, 194 
use of stimulating, 182 
Females, number to one male, 285 
Fence bracing, 163 
height of, 164 
ideal, 165 

maintenance of, 167 
material for, 163 
Fertility, discussion of, 306 
in hatching eggs, 428 
increase in, 31 
Figuring ration, 207 
Fish scrap, composition of, 196 

manufacture, 195 
Fixed capital defined, 58 
Fixtures, location of, 143 
Flax seed, its use and value, 192 
Fleas, 510 
Flock, fattening, 403 

size of, 270 
Floors, construction of, 117 
ideal concrete, 131 
space related to capacity, 109 
Food consumption, 224 

for egg production, 176 
for fattening, 176 
for growing stock, 374 
for growth and maintenance, 176 
Foraging abilities of egg breeds, 80 
of general-purpose breeds, 89 
of meat breeds, 85 
Foreign poul+ry keeping, 35 

Austria-Hungary, 39 
Belgium, 38 
Denmark, 38 
English, 35 
French, 37 
Ireland, 36 
Italy, 38 
Russia, 39 
Foundation, laying out, 124 

types of construction, 116 
Fowls, 376 

biological classification of, 65 



Fowls, composition of body, 169 

nomenclature of, 515 

origin of, 63 

parts of, 515 

physiological description of, 292 
Frame, manner of constructing, 128 
Frames for concrete wall, 126 
Framing poultry house materials, 118 
France, poultry farming in, 37 
Free range, 158 

French breeds, possibilities of, 76 
Fresh air, need of, 108 
Frizzles, characteristics of, 78 
Frozen combs, 505 
Fryers, 385 
Functional activity, 242 

effect in breeding, 228 

variation, 238 



Gallus bankiva, 63 
Games, ancestry of, 76 
characteristics, 76 
Gametic defined, 234 
Gapeworm, 511 
Gasoline brooder, 254 
Gate, construction of, 166 

location, 165 
General-purpose breeds, classification, 89 
as foragers, 89 
disposition of, 87 
hardiness of, 89 
maturity of, 87 
sitting qualities, 88 
type defined, S6 
Geographic distribution of fowls, 9 
Germ oil, 187 

Gizzard, location and function, 297 
Glass windows, proper size, 121 
Gluten feed defined, 186 

meal defined, 186, 193 
Glycogen, composition, 171 
Grading on side hill, 124 

up, advantages of, 246 
Grains, composition of, 193 

digestibility of, 181 
Grasses, value and usage, 198 
Gravity water supply, 52 
Green food, 371 

for breeders, 287 
supplying in yards, 160 
Grit for chicks, 359 

and shell boxes, design, 156 
usage, 181, 212 
Growing stock, chapter on, 368-375 



INDEX 



529 



Growth, feeding for, 175 
how affected, 369 

H 

Half-monitor house, cost of materials, 139 
plans, 137 
specifications, 138 
Hamburgs, distribution of, 76 
Hardening-off process, 365 
Hardiness of egg breeds, 80 

of general-purpose breeds, 89 
of meat breeds, 85 
Harvest mites, 510 
Hatching, advantages of early, 278 
centralized, 27 
eggs, collection of, 287 
keeping, 288 
selection of, 287 
process of, 310 
Hay-cutter, 206 
Head, bones of, 294 
Health, importance of, 101, 271 
Heat, effect on birds, 109 

in incubator, 337 
Heater, operation of, 366 
Heavy producers, breeding from, 252 
Height of laying house, 112 
Hen compared with cow, 169 

consumption and production with, 510 
Hen's eggs, composition of, 196 
Heredity, benefits from, 230 
definition, 229 
example of, 229 
law of, 229 
Hollow tile for incubator cellar, 329 
Home practice, value of, 6 
Hominy meal, composition of, 193 

manufacture, 187 
Hoppers, advantages of, 106 
design, 154 
self-feeding, 153 
types of, 154 
use of, 130 
Hot-air incubators, 331 
Houdans, possibilities of, 94 
House construction, standard-unit, 113 
convenience in, 106 
development of, 104 
economy in, 105 
effect of shape on cost, 113 
grading for, 124 
principles of, 104 
roofing materials, 122 
sanitation, 110 
design, features of, 105 



Houses, brooder, 348 

feed, 204 

for growing stock, 372 

importance of cleanliness, 497 

perimeter of, 113 

preservation of, 122 

types of, 111 
Hunterdon County, New Jersey, a great 

egg centre, 16 
Hybridizing defined, 230, 246 

example of, 231 
Hygiene, 497 
Hypoblast defined, 307 



Icing poultry, 447 

Imagination as affecting breeding, 264 
Impregnation, effect of a previous, 264 
Improvement, need of, 221. 
Inbreeding defined, 246, 247 

effect on vigor, 255 

possibilities of, 248 

ways of, 247 
Incubation, advantages of artificial, 313 

advantages of natural, 312 

artificial, 326 

cooling during, 339 

disadvantages of natural, 312 

eggs under one hen, 318 

hatching time, 345 

historical development, 326 

natural, 312 

period of development, 321 

record, 458 

temperature, 338 
regulation, 333 

testing, 344 

turning, 339 
Incubator, best place for, 335 

care of, 335 

cellar for, 329 

cellar plans, 328 

development of, 327 

filling egg chamber, 336 

house, capacity of, 330 
interior arrangement, 330 
location, 331 
plans of, 328 
requirements of, 327 
ventilation, 329 

lamp, 335 

moisture for, 341 

record, 456 

selection of, 333 
ventilation of, 340 



530 



INDEX 



Incubators, mammoth, 332 

types of, 331 
Infertile eggs, advantages of, 307, 437 
Infertility, causes of, 289 
Inheritance as affecting breeding, 226 

definition, 226 

genotype conception of, 234 

of disease, 227 

of fecundity, 233 

statistical conception of, 233 
Inherited characters, 369 
Instruction, collegiate, 2 

by correspondence, 3 

demand for, 1 

diversity of, 1 

elementary, 2 

need for, 1 

secondary, 2 

types of, 2 
Internal parasites, 510 
Intestinal worms, 511 
Intestines, location and function, 297 
Inventory making, 458 

record, 455 
Investment in buildings, 60 

in equipment, 60 

poultry keeping as an, 23 
Ireland, poultry farming in, 36 
Italy, poultry farming in, 38 



Journals, list of, 520 
Judges, selection of, 485 
Judging, 486 

by comparison, 487 

by scoring, 488 

methods of, 487 

objects of, 486 

principles of, 487 
Jungle fowl, description of, 63 



Kaffir corn, 192 
Key-word is system, 62 
Killing, chapter on, 403-420 
knife for, 412 
methods of, 409 
preparation for, 409 



Labor, amount of, 60 
economy of, 53 
records, 461 



Labor-saving devices, 60 
Laboratory practice, methods of, 4 

need of, 4 
Lady Cornell, performance of, 259 
Land contour, 49 

form of capital, 59 
ownership vs. rental, 59 
required, 28 
shape of, 50, 51 
size or area, 50 
Langshan, origin, 72 
Law of atavism, 240 
of correlation, 241 
of inheritance, 229 
of variation, 235 
Lawn clippings, 197 
Laws of breeding, 229 
Lay bones, 294 

Laying house, capacity of, 108 
doors, 119 

features of design, 105 
floors, 117 
foundations, 116 
framing, 118 
height of, 112 
materials for, 111 
moisture in, 107 
multiple-unit, 128 
practical types, 128 
roofs, 114 
shapes, 112 
size, 110 

standard-unit, 115 
sunlight, 106 
ventilation, 108 
walls and partitions, 118 
windows and curtains, 120 
rations, California, 219 
Cornell, 218 
New Jersey, 216 
stock, fall management, 269 
management of, 266 
summer management, 274 
winter management, 270 
Leading poultry States, 10 
Learning poultry business, 57 
Levelling board, use of, 124 
Leg banding, importance of, 322, 454 
Leghorns, origin of, 73 
performance of, 81 
Legs, description of, 293 
Legumes, value and usage, 198 
Lettuce, 201 
Lice, body, 507 

Like begets like, meaning of, 229 
Lime in droppings, 449 



INDEX 



531 



Lime sources of, 185 

uses of, 185 
Limitation of sex, 243 
Line-breeding, advantages of, 248 
chart for, 249 
defined, 24S 
for eggs, 253 
Linseed meal, composition of, 193 
Litter, 272 

Little Compton District, Rhode Island, 17 
Live poultry, marketing, 443 

scoring, 491 
Liver, 297 

Location, climatic conditions, 48 
defined, 41 
effect on success, 41 
for egg farming, 44 
for meat farming, 44 
soil conditions, 48 
Long laying house, cost of material, 134 
material for, 133 
small units for breeding, 132 
specifications, 132 

M 

Machine, hen compared with, 222 
Mail, need of frequent service, 43 
Maintenance, feeding for, 175 
Malay fowl, description of, 64 
Male, importance of, 234 

birds affecting production, 307 
Males, proportion to females, 285 
Mammoth incubators, 332 
Management, changes in, 20 
Manure, handling, 449 
Market poultry, types of, 376 
Marketing, chapter on, 422 

cooperation in, 450 

importance of care, 268 

methods of, 12 
Markets, 422 

course of products, 425 

distance from, 41 

nearness vs. price of land, 41 

securing, 428 
Mash for chicks, 359 
Mass breeding, 281 
Materials for laying houses, 111 
Mating season, care during, 286 
Matings, double, 261 

importance of special, 281 
Mature birds, value in breeding, 253 
Maturity of egg breeds, 79 

of general-purpose breeds, 87 

meat breeds, 84 



Meal, animal, 195, 196 
Meat, amount in ration, 179 

breeds as egg producers, 85 
as foragers, 85 
as sitters, 85 
classification of, 85 
description of type, 83 
disposition of, 84 
hardiness of, 85 
maturity of, 84 
farming, 26 

location for, 44 
returns from, 20 
necessity in the ration, 179 
production, breeding for, 258 
quality, 97 

scrap, value and usage, 194 
Medicines, 506 

Mediterranean class breeds, 72 
Mendel's law, essence of, 23 
Menopon biseriatum, 507 
Mercantile exchange, function, 430 
Meristic variation, 238 
Mesoblast defined 307 
Methods of judging, 487 
Milk albumin, composition, 196 
importance of, 197 
composition of, 196 
granulated, composition of, 196 
manufacture and usage, 197 
Millet seed, usage, 192 
Milo maize, 192 
Mineral matter for laying hens, 181 

sources of, 202 
Minerals, double function of, 202 

for poultry, 201 
Minorcas, origin, 73 

performance of, 83 
Mites, 509, 510 
Mixed feeds, value of, 194 
Mixing board for concrete, 127 
Modern development, 19 
Moisture in incubation, 342 

in the poultry house, 107 
Molt indicative of egg production, 277 
Molting, care during, 276 
forcing, 277 

selection in reference to, 253 
Morphological variation, 236 
Motion of embryo, 310 
Multiple-unit house, 132 

development of, 113 
material required, 131 
specifications, 128 
working plans for, 129 
Muscular system, uses of, 295 



532 



INDEX 



Muslin curtains, frames, 121 

proper size, 120 

use of, 108 

weight cloth, 122 
Mutation defined, 238 
example, 239 

N 

Nest construction, 146 
design, 146 
eggs, use, 279 
location, 148 
materials, 147, 317 
rules for making, 317 
special trap nests, 148 
types, 147 
New Jersey rations outlined, 215 
Nomenclature of fowl, 515 
Noted centres of production, Hunterdon 
County, N. J., 16 
Little Compton, R. I., 17 
Petaluma, Cal., 12 
South Shore, Mass., .18 
Vineland, N. J., 15 
Notochord defined, 307 
Nutrients, classified, 171 
defined, 171 
in feeding stuffs, 518 
right proportion, 208 
sources of, 184 
sufficient, 207 
uses of, in the body, 172 
Nutrition defined, 171 

process of, 171 
Nutritive ratio defined, 20S 
example, 209 

O 

Oatmeal, composition of, 193 

usage, 188 
Oats, composition, 193 

sprouted, usage, 189 

value, 188 
Oil meal, 192 
Olive oil, 506 
Onions, 200 

Organic feeds, classification, 185 
Organization, American Poultry Associa- 
tion, 26 

breed associations, 26 

for education, 4 

growth of, 20 

in European countries, 40 
Organs, uses of, 295 



Orientals, origin, 76 
Orpingtons, origin, 75 
Out-crossing defined, 249 

object, 250 
Ovary, location and function, 300 
Oviduct, location and function, 300 
Oyster shell, 185, 201 



Packages for dressed poultry, 444 
Parasites, 507 

on young chicks, 324 
Peas and oats, 197 
Pedigree, value of, 283 
Pelvic arch, 294 
Pen record, 455 
Perches, construction, 144 

location and design, 143 
Personality, importance of, 56, 61 
Petaluma, California, 12, 13, 14 
Phosphate rock, composition, 202 

uses and sources, 185 
Physiological organization of the fowl, 294 
Physiology, 292 
Planning records, 453 
Plans multiple-unit house, 129 
Plucking methods, 413 
Plumping, 417 
Plymouth Rocks, 89 
Polish class, 75 
Poor hatcfees, causes, 322 
Pork scrap, value, 195, 196 
Portable laying house, materials, 141 
plans, 140 
specifications, 139 
Post-mortem examinations, 502 
Posts, bracing, 163 

materials for, 161 

setting, 162 
Potatoes, usage, 199 
Potential energy defined, 209 
Poultry, breeds of, 63 

diseases, 496, 503 

economics, land, labor and capital, 5S 

exhibitions, 475 

farming defined, 7 

feeds, 184 

fixtures, 143 

house, standard-unit, 113 

in cities, 8 

in the United States, 8, 9, 10 

journals, list, 520 

keeping, advantages, 28 
disadvantages, 31 
how to learn, 57 



INDEX 



533 



Poultry keeping, objects of, 22 

place in the animal kingdom, 65 
plants, scoring, 493 
surgery, 504 
systems, danger of, 34 
value of pure-bred, 252 
Poultryman, qualifications of, 57 
Power, kinds of, 206 
Practical application, value of, 1 
Prepotency defined, 242 
how increased, 243 
importance in breeders, 283 
Preservation of eggs, 441 
of fence posts, 161 
of fences, 167 
of houses, 122 
Price of products, 426 
Prices, regulation of, 430 
Principles of breeding, 225 

of judging, 487 
Prizes, profit from, 473 
Problems of the breeder, 223 
Producer to consumer, 425 
Production, amount of, 33 
as affected by male, 307 
cost of, 33 
feeding for, 175 
noted centres of, 10 
Productiveness, effect on vigor, 255 
Products as influenced by foods fed, 178 
easy to market, 29 
exhibition of, 486 
variety of, 29 
Profits, average yearly, 34 
determined by, 32, 267 
effects of rats and mice upon, 110 
from advertising, 475 
from prizes, 473 
from sale of birds, 475 
how to increase, 35 
per cent on investment, 34 
Protection from cold, 110 
Protein, composition of, 170 
cost of a pound, 211 
defined, 170 
for chicks, 360 
functions of, 172 
importance of, 172 
Protoplasm defined, 295 
Proventriculus, 297 
Publications, development of, 20 
Pullets as breeders, 256, 284 

early producing, 253 
"Pure bred" defined, 96 
Pure-bred birds, cost of, 98 
demand for, 99 



Pure-bred birds, efficiency of, 99 

selling value, 99, 252 
Pure breeds, advantages of, 96 
value for meat, 258 



Qualifications necessary for poultryman, 57 
Quality of products, 426 

R 

Range, 369 

Rape, composition of, 200 

value, 201 
Rations, compounding, 207 
defined, 207 
for chicks, 361 
for growing stock, 375 
mixing, 207 
outlined, 215 
storing, 211 

summer changes in, 275 
Rats, protection against, 110 
Recessive, meaning in Mendel's law, 231 
Reciprocal crosses, 250 
Records, 453 

breeding, 454 
brooding, 460, 461 
egg, 278 
feeding, 459 
importance of, 453 
incubator, 345, 456 
inventory, 455 
labor, 461 

methods of keeping, 462 
of sitting hens, 320 
pen, 455 
planning of, 453 
sitting, 458 
young stock, 461 
Red mites, 507 
Reference literature, 5 
Regularity in feeding, 212 
Retailer, selling to, 423 
Returns, 424 

rapidity of, 30 
Rhode Island- Reds, 93 

origin of, 71 
Rice, value, 192 

Right-angle triangle, use of, 125 
Risks in the business, 34 
Roads, 43 

Roaster, breeds for, 388 
defined, 386 
dressing, 418 



534 



INDEX 



Roaster, farming, South Shore, IS 
Roasters, chapter on, 376-402 

distribution of, 385 

features of, 388 

management, 389 

prices, 387 

types, 3S7 
Roofing materials, 122 
Roofs, types, 114 
Roosting closets, 145 
Root crops, 200 
Roundworms, 511 
Running water, advantages of, 52 
Russia, poultry farming in, 39 
Rye, value and usage, 191 



Salesman, 422 

responsibility of, 427 
Salt, 185, 212 
Sanitation, 110,497 
Sarcoptes mutans, 508 
Scalding, 414 
Scaly legs, 509 
Score card, decimal, 490 

dressed poultry, 492 
market poultry, 492 
official, 489 
types of, 48S 
Scoring, 488 

dressed poultry, 491 

eggs, 492 

poultry plant, 493 
Scratch feeding grains, 214 
Scratching ration, Cornell, 219 

New Jersey, 217 
Segmentation defined, 307 
Selection defined, 251 

for egg production, 254 

hatching eggs, 2S7 

importance of, 281 

judges, 485 

layers, 275 

live birds, 101 

pullets at maturity, 270 

show birds, 479 
Selling value pure-bred birds, 99 
Semi-community system, 46 
Senses, development of, 298 
Setting coops, cleanliness, 320 

materials for, 316 
Setting the hen, 318 
Sex adaptation, 30 

control, 250 

limitation, 243 
Sexes, separation, 324 



Sexual dimorphism, 261 

Shade, 371 

Shape, a breed characteristic, 68 

of laying house, 112 

selection for, 102 
Shaping, 417 
Shed roof, 115 
Shell for chicks, 359 

membranes, 304 

structure and composition, 302 

usage, 212 
Shipping dressed poultry, 447 

methods of, 428 

need of facility in, 43 

to exhibition, 482 
Show, arrangement of, 485 

running, 483 
Side line, poultry keeping as a, 26 
Silkies, 77 
Simplicity, 111, 143 
Sitting hen, care of, 319, 322 
selection of, 317 
when to set, 315 

qualities of egg breeds, 80 
of general-purpose breeds, 88 
of the meat breeds, 85 

records of, 458 
Situation defined, 41 

important factors in, 49 
Size, importance of in breeding, 258 

of laying house, 110 

of stock, 102 
Skeleton, 292 

Skim milk, composition, 196 
Skunks, 512 
Slips, 398 
Slope, best, 52 
Soil effect on color, 264 

effect on fertility, 31 

proper condition of, 48 

undesirable types, 49 
Solid color, breeding for, 263 
Somatic defined, 234 
Sorghum, 192 
South Shore roasters, 18 
Spaying, 401 

Spraying for cleanliness, 273 
Spring, for water supply, 53 
Sprouted oats, advantages,, 193 
composition, 191 
manner of sprouting, 1S9 
Standard bred defined, 94 

poultry, exhibition of, 477 

classification defined, 66 
table of, 66, 67 

of excellence, use of, 225 



INDEX 



535 



Standard weights, table, 70 
Start, small beginning, 56 
Starting time, 61 
Sternum, 294 
Sticking, 410 
Stimulating feeds, 182 
Stock, importance of good, 61 
method of acquiring, 100 
quality of, 101 
selection of, 96, 267 
Storage of dressed poultry, 448 

of eggs, 442 
Substantive variation, 237 
Suburban poultry farming, 24 
Success and failure, causes of, 96 

best way to achieve, 7, 56, 61 
Succulence for chicks, 361 

need of, 210 
Sultans, appearance, 77 
Sunflower seeds, 192 
Sunlight, 106 
Supply, 427 

vs. demand, 32 
Surgery, 504 
Swiss chard, 201 
Symptoms of disease, 500 
System, best for beginner, 60 
defined, 295 
the key to success, 62 
Systems of feeding, best, 215 
classified, 212 
of poultry farming classified, 45 



Tapeworm, 512 
Tar, use as a paint, 123 
Taste, sense of, 299 
Telephone, need of, 43 
Temperature for brooding, 257 

for holding hatching eggs, 288 
for incubation, 337 
fowl's body, 169 
of houses, 109 
Testicles, location, 298 
Testing eggs, 320, 343 
Thermostat, use of, 333 
Tile, use under foundation, 126 
Time to start, 61 
Tissue defined, 295 

kinds of, 295 
Toe punching, 454 

manner of, 322 
Training for exhibition, 477 
Transit, use of, 124 
Transportation, facilities for, 21 



Transportation, need of, 42 

Trap-nesting to improve egg production, 

278 
Trap nests, 148 

design, 149 
usage, 149 
Trench for foundation, 125 
Troughs for feeding, 152 
Turning eggs in incubation, 339 
Two-thirds span house, specifications, 135 
Type defined, 71 

for egg production, 257 
of incubators, 331 
of laying houses, 110 

U 

Under color, importance of, 263 
Uniformity of eggs, 97 

of flocks, 98 
Unit of protein, cost of, 211 

standard poultry house, 113 
United States census table, 8 
Utility classification, 66, 78 

exhibitions, 475 

fancy combined with, 25 

quality, score card for, 490 

score card, use of, 491 

types compared, 88 



Value, basis of, 224 
Variation, causes of, 239 

functional, 238 

laws of, 235 

meristic, 238 

morphological, 236 

principles of, 235 

substantive, 237 

types of, 236 
Varieties, number of, 66 
Variety defined, 70 

necessity in feeding, 180 
Vegetable cutter, 206 
Vegetables, composition of, 19S, 200 
Ventilation, automatic, 108 

in incubator cellar, 329, 340 

in poultry house, 108 
Vigor, cause of lack of, 255 

constitutional, 254 

importance of, 254 

selection for, 102 
Vineland District, New Jersey, 15 
Vital question, profitable production, 35 
Vitality, signs of high, 256 



DEC It 1913 



536 



INDEX 



Vitality, signs of low, 256 
Vitelline membrane, 301 
Vitellus defined, 301 

W 

Walls, materials for, 118 
Washing birds, 479 
Waste land, 42 

products, 31 
Water, elevating for storage, 53 

for chicks, 359 

importance of fresh, 52 

in eggs, 184 

in fowl's body, 170 

necessity of, 173, 180 

sources of, 52, 184 

uses of, 173 
Water-glass, use of, 441 
Weaning chicks, 324, 368 
Weasels, 512 
Weight, 102 

Weights of breeds, table, 70 
Wet mash, 213 
Wheat as a poultry food, 179, 193 

bran, composition, 193 
manufacture, 187 

flour, 188 



Wheat middlings, 187, 193 
screening, 188 

Whey, 196 

White diarrhoea, 364 

White-faced Black Spanish, origin, 73 

Windows, arrangement, 106 • .■ .. 

for laying house, 120 

Wings, 292 

Winter quarters, 269 

Wire, poultry fencing, 163 

Working plans, half-monitor house, 137 
long laying house, 132 
portable laying house, 140 
two-thirds span house, 135 

Wyandottes, 71, 91 



Yarding, double, 159 
Yards and yarding, 158 

clean, 499 

cost of, 159 

crop rotation for, 160 

shape of, 159 

size of, 158 

vs. free range, 158 
Yolk, 304 
Young stock, record, 461 



